Archief - De grote OFF-TOPIC thread
Het archief is een bevroren moment uit een vorige versie van dit forum, met andere regels en andere bazen. Deze posts weerspiegelen op geen enkele manier onze huidige ideeën, waarden of wereldbeelden en zijn op sommige plaatsen gecensureerd wegens ontoelaatbaar. Veel zijn in een andere tijdsgeest gemaakt, al dan niet ironisch - zoals in het ironische subforum Off-Topic - en zouden op dit moment niet meer gepost (mogen) worden. Toch bieden we dit archief nog graag aan als informatiedatabank en naslagwerk. Lees er hier meer over of start een gesprek met anderen.
Mee
Legacy Member
En de algemene relativiteitstheorie danSchummi88 zei:die Barbossa was nog leerrijk wel
.Einstein was zo ne slimme kerel hè, wist ge dat dienen in de jaren 10 ofzo al zei "via gestimuleerde emissie kunt ge een lichtbron maken" (en theorie helemaal uitgewerkt enzo). Pas in de jaren 60 hebben ze de laser (zoals iedereen wel weet hèt voorbeeld van gestimuleerde emissie) kunnen maken.
protnie
Legacy Member
MORE WIKIPEDIA WEETJES!!!!
Napoleon Bonaparte
Uit Wikipedia, de vrije encyclopedie
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Napoleon I 1769-1821
Napoleon Bonaparte door J.A.D. Ingres
Keizer der Fransen
Periode 1804-1814
Voorganger Eerste Franse Republiek
Opvolger Lodewijk XVIII (koning)
Keizer der Fransen
Periode 1815
Voorganger Lodewijk XVIII (koning)
Opvolger Napoleon II
Koning van Italië
Periode 1805-1814
Voorganger --
Opvolger --
Vader Carlo Maria Buonaparte
Moeder Maria Laetitia Ramolino
Dynastie Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte (Ajaccio (Corsica), 15 augustus 1769 — Sint-Helena, 5 mei 1821) was Eerste Consul van Frankrijk (1799 - 1804) en daarna keizer der Fransen (1804 - 1815). Napoleon is vooral belangrijk als militair leider van het Franse leger in deze periodes, en is verder bekend door zijn heerschappij als vorst in het Frankrijk van na de revolutie, door zijn veldtocht naar Moskou en door zijn ondergang in Waterloo. De combinatie legerleider - staatshoofd, en dit op Europese schaal, maakt hem tot alleenheerser (of dictator) van een groot deel van Europa rond het jaar 1800.
Zijn functies waren als volgt:
* Eerste Consul van Frankrijk van 11 november 1799 tot 18 mei 1804
* Keizer der Fransen van 1804 tot 6 april 1814 en van 20 maart tot 22 juni 1815
* Koning van Italië van 31 maart 1805 tot 1814
* Beschermheer van de Rijnbond van 12 juni 1806 tot 1813.
Inhoud
[verbergen]
* 1 Jeugd
* 2 Napoleon aan de macht
o 2.1 Evaluatie: zijn kwaliteiten en foute inschattingen
o 2.2 Vernieuwingen ingevoerd tijdens het Napoleontische bewind
* 3 Bezette gebieden, bondgenoten en vijanden
o 3.1 Bezette gebieden en bondgenoten
o 3.2 Vijanden
* 4 De Russische veldtocht van "La Grande Armée"
* 5 De Honderd Dagen van Elba naar Waterloo
o 5.1 Napoleon verslagen bij Waterloo
* 6 Ballingschap op St. Helena
* 7 Familieleven
o 7.1 Vrouwen en kinderen
* 8 Zie ook
* 9 Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
Jeugd
Napoleone Buonaparte (zijn echte, Italiaanse geboortenaam) werd geboren in Ajaccio op het eiland Corsica. Hij was als volwassene niet echt groot van gestalte: ongeveer 1.67m maar viel hierin niet bijzonder op bij zijn tijdgenoten. De gemiddelde Italiaan van zijn generatie was van dezelfde lengte. De verhalen dat Napoleon een echt 'onderdeurtje' was zijn waarschijnlijk terug te voeren op spotprenten in de Britse pers. Zijn ouders, Carlo Buonaparte en Maria Laetitia Ramolino, collaboreerden met de Franse bezetting op Corsica. Hierdoor kon Napoleon een studiebeurs in Frankrijk krijgen. Hij studeerde aan de militaire scholen van Brienne en Parijs. Toen hij deze laatste verliet was hij tweede luitenant van de artillerie.
Maar de jonge held zoekt naar carrièremogelijkheden en keert terwijl Frankrijk van alle kanten wordt aangevallen terug naar Corsica in een poging zich op te dringen als opvolger van Paoli, de vrijheidsstrijder. Het lukt hem in 1792 de positie van luitenant-kolonel te veroveren in de koningsgezinde Corsicaanse Nationale Garde. Voor het uitbreken van de Franse Revolutie vinden we de jonge Napoleon echter weer terug in Frankrijk; hij sloot zich hierbij aan. In Corsica was hij niet meer gewenst en verdacht van "heulen met de vijand" (Frankrijk) In 1793 nam hij, nu als kapitein van de "revolutionaire" artillerie, deel aan de verovering van Toulon op, door de Engelsen gesteunde, Franse koningsgezinden. Hiervoor kreeg hij een eervolle vermelding en werd hij benoemd tot brigadegeneraal, op 24-jarige leeftijd.
Napoleon Bonaparte als luitenant-kolonel van de jagers van de Keizerlijke Garde
Napoleon Bonaparte als luitenant-kolonel van de jagers van de Keizerlijke Garde
Napoleon aan de macht
In maart 1796 kreeg Napoleon als 26-jarige het bevel over het Franse leger aan het Italiaanse front, een leger van ongeveer 30.000 man. Er was gebrek aan voedsel en kleding, waardoor ook vechtlust en motivatie ontbraken. Napoleon deed hen grootse beloften om het moreel van de troepen op te vijzelen: zo zei hij bijvoorbeeld tegen zijn soldaten dat hij ze naar de rijkste plekken ter wereld zou leiden, waar ze eer, roem en rijkdom zouden krijgen. En zo trok het leger naar Italië.
De Italiaanse veldtocht moest vanuit drie richtingen worden uitgevoerd. Het leger moest volgens opdracht van de regering (het Directoire), door de Povlakte en langs de Etsch naar Wenen trekken, terwijl de Oostenrijkse hoofdstad vanuit het noorden zou worden aangevallen door het Samber-en-Maasleger. Napoleon wist dit wel, maar had zo zijn eigen ideeën. Hij was namelijk heel goed in het vinden van de zwakke plek van zijn tegenstanders. En zo versloeg hij ze een voor een.
Eerst veroverde hij Illesimo en daarna Milaan. Napoleon liet buiten medeweten van de Franse regering om zijn tegenstanders verdragen volgens zijn eigen voorwaarden ondertekenen. Hij dwong de Kerkelijke Staat en de hertogen van Parma en Modena tot een wapenstilstand. Napoleon veroverde Italië en hij liet de bevolking zware schattingen betalen, die hij naar Parijs stuurde om de regering daar rustig te houden.
Ook moesten de veroverde gebieden dezelfde grondwet aannemen als Frankrijk. De successen van Napoleon in Italië bleven ook in Frankrijk niet onopgemerkt en hij werd steeds populairder bij het Franse volk. Napoleon was nu overal bekend en was door zijn overwinningen de held van Frankrijk geworden.
Napoleon bij het doorkruisen van de Alpen (door David)
Napoleon bij het doorkruisen van de Alpen (door David)
Na de overwinningen in Italië - dat hij later zijn Koninkrijk Italië noemde - ging hij naar Egypte, want hij wilde ook gebieden in het Oosten hebben. De regering wilde eigenlijk dat hij oorlog tegen Engeland voerde, maar Napoleon was van mening dat de Engelsen het best bestreden konden worden door hun handel in het Oosten (met Brits Indië) te blokkeren. Hij behaalde de overmacht en trok via Malta Egypte binnen. Al snel veroverde hij Egypte, maar Engeland won enkele dagen later, op 1 augustus 1798, een zeeslag (Slag op de Nijl) en had daardoor het Middellandse Zeegebied in handen, waardoor Napoleons leger in Egypte vastzat.
Ook Oostenrijk, Turkije, Rusland en Napels verklaarden de Fransen de oorlog. Hierdoor verloor Frankrijk al zijn bezittingen in Italië, op Genua na. Maar toen Napoleon de Franse toestand vernam, ontsnapte hij uit Egypte en trok naar Parijs.
Hij kreeg de steun van het volk, omdat men met de huidige regering ontevreden was. Hij zette de regering tijdens een staatsgreep af (9 november 1799), wat het einde van het Directoire betekende. Er kwam een nieuwe grondwet, die inhield dat er drie mannen, consuls genaamd, de macht kregen. Het Consulaat werd definitief op 15 december 1799 geïnstalleerd. Napoleon werd de eerste consul, advocaat de Cambacérès tweede consul en Lebrun derde consul. Zij mochten 10 jaar aan de macht blijven, maar eigenlijk had alleen de eerste consul, Napoleon, de macht over heel Frankrijk in handen.
Hij deed er alles aan Frankrijk weer op de been te krijgen, en hij begreep dat je een land het beste kon opbouwen als er vrede was. Napoleon bood Engeland en Oostenrijk vrede aan, maar deze waren het niet eens met de voorwaarden en besloten samen een bondgenootschap tegen Frankrijk te vormen.
Hierdoor braken er weer nieuwe oorlogen uit, maar het leger van Napoleon won uiteindelijk toch. Op 9 februari 1801 werd in Lunéville het vredesverdrag door Oostenrijk en Napels getekend. Het bondgenootschap tussen Oostenrijk en Engeland was inmiddels verbroken. Door dit vredesverdrag kreeg Frankrijk weer in het grootste deel van Italië de macht. Later tekende ook Rusland het vredesverdrag.
Napoleon in Egypte door Jean-Léon Gérôme
Napoleon in Egypte door Jean-Léon Gérôme
Op 15 augustus van datzelfde jaar sloot Napoleon een overeenkomst met Paus Pius VII, genoemd het Concordaat. Zo werd Napoleon ook geliefd bij de katholieken. Op 27 maart 1802 werd eindelijk ook vrede gesloten met de Engelsen.
Dit maakte Napoleon immens populair. Het volk bepaalde dat hij consul voor het leven zou worden, en door middel van een nieuwe grondwet, waarin bepaald werd dat hij zelf verdragen mocht sluiten en zelf rechterlijke beslissingen ongeldig mocht verklaren, verstevigde hij zijn machtspositie. Napoleon werd alleenheerser over Frankrijk. Frankrijk was een dictatuur geworden.
Maar Napoleon wilde meer dan consul voor het leven zijn, en hij liet zich door de senaat tot "Keizer der Fransen" uitroepen. Door een volksstemming gebeurde dit dan ook. Op 2 december 1804 kroonde Napoleon zichzelf in aanwezigheid van Paus Pius VII in de Notre-Dame tot Keizer. Later werd hij door dezelfde paus na zijn aanvallen op pauselijke staten geëxcommuniceerd. Het Louvre, waar veel geroofde kunst werd ondergebracht, werd omgedoopt in Musée Napoléon.
Evaluatie: zijn kwaliteiten en foute inschattingen
Napoleon was als militair in opleiding uitzonderlijk goed in rekenen en kaartlezen. Het rekenen paste hij toe in de artillerie: het berekenen van een kanonschot, en het gebruiken van die wijsheid. Het kaartlezen gebruikte hij zijn leven lang om vanaf (vaak slordige en foute) kaarten een goede positie en opstelling na te streven. Het blijkt dat Napoleon de slagen won, die hij op zijn zelfgekozen slagveld voerde. Een combinatie van die twee talenten leidde tot zijn capaciteit om een legerverplaatsing over vele honderden kilometers kon plannen, waardoor hij een belangrijk of beslissend voordeel kon halen.
Napoleon was een groot organisator. Hij heeft talloze bestuurlijke vernieuwingen doorgevoerd en in heel Europa een voorbeeld van een strak geregeld en doeltreffend bewind nagelaten. Hij was ook een bekwaam wetgever die zich door voortreffelijke juristen als Cambacérès liet adviseren.
Napoleon kroont zijn vrouw Joséphine de Beauharnais tot keizerin (door David; detail)
Napoleon kroont zijn vrouw Joséphine de Beauharnais tot keizerin (door David; detail)
Hij beging de fout dat hij het belang van de Engelse blokkade van Europese continentale havens (van Marseille tot aan Riga) onderschatte. Merkwaardig was dat de blokkade eenzijdig was; Frankrijk exporteerde graan en zonder dat graan zou Engeland verhongerd zijn. Napoleon dacht nog in mercantilistische termen en dacht dat het stilleggen van de Britse export de Britse economie zou ruïneren.
Napoleon verkeek zich, zoals Adolf Hitler ruim een eeuw later, op het effect van de extreme koude en de enorme afstanden in Rusland vergeleken met die van westelijk Europa. Daardoor had men te maken met zeer lange aanvoerlijnen en geen mogelijkheid tot ruil van krijgsgevangenen.
De Spaanse veroveringstocht was een kostbaar fiasco. De strijd tegen Wellington en de Spaanse opstandelingen heeft vele duizenden doden gekost en in 1814 stonden de Engelsen voor Toulouse.
Napoleon ontwikkelde zich meer en meer tot een tiran. Censuur en een uitgebreide geheime politie onderdrukten alle kritiek op de keizer. Door steeds jongere rekruten op te roepen en voortdurend oorlog te blijven voeren heeft Napoleon Frankrijk demografisch en economisch uitgeput.
Napoleon was een zeer bekwaam propagandist van zijn eigen zaak maar een slecht redenaar. Zowel bij zijn optreden voor de "Raad der Ouden" in Saint-Cloud tijdens zijn staatsgreep in 1799 als bij zijn rede voor de Senaat na de nederlaag in Rusland heeft Napoleon staan hakkelen en sloeg zo een slecht figuur.
Waar zijn eigen macht niet in het geding was kon Napoleon tolerant en een ware zoon van de Franse Revolutie zijn. Hij emancipeerde de Joden en zag zich, theatraal als hij was, als de "Tweede Mozes" die een Groot Sanhedrin bijeen zou roepen. Van het inschakelen van de Joden voor de Keizerlijke zaak kwam weinig terecht en in 1812 beperkte Napoleon hun politieke en economische rechten weer. Hij werd desondanks geliefd bij de Europese Joden en Heinrich Heine vereerde de keizer. De Napoleontische Code Pénal maakte een einde aan de vervolging van homoseksuelen. De slavernij werd door Napoleon daarentegen wèl verdedigd maar zijn poging om Santo Domingo te heroveren mislukte jammerlijk. Voor de emancipatie van vrouwen had de Corsicaan geen oog. Napoleon waardeerde ontwikkelde vrouwen als Madame de Staël beslist niet.
De waardering van de persoon en zijn werk worden door geschiedvervalsingen, in de hand gewerkt door de door Napoleon doelbewust gecreëerde legende, gehinderd. Hij heeft zijn bekwaamste generaals stelselmatig belasterd en doodgezwegen. Op Sint-Helena is door de verbannen keizer zes jaar lang hard gewerkt aan een revisie van zijn loopbaan en de legende van de goedbedoelende, populaire staatsman. Alle mislukkingen werden op het conto van anderen geschreven. Door de verwrongen beeldvorming en de halve waarheden waarmee voor- en tegenstanders hun boeken vulden is het moeilijk om een objectief beeld te krijgen.
De Napoleonliteratuur telde in 1946 al meer dan 100.000 werken. Sommige biografen zien hem als een hebzuchtige en nietsontziende tiran en trekken vergelijkingen met Hitler en Stalin. Anderen zien hem als de goedhartige "kleine korporaal" en benadrukken zijn prestaties.
Vernieuwingen ingevoerd tijdens het Napoleontische bewind
Gedurende het bewind van Napoleon werden veel bestuurlijke en nuttige vernieuwingen in het door Frankrijk beheerste gebied ingevoerd. Nadat de Franse legers verdreven waren, bleven in de vroegere Franse gebieden veel van deze vernieuwingen toch gehandhaafd omdat deze hun nut ondertussen bewezen hadden:
Napoleon op zijn keizerlijke troon (door Ingres)
Napoleon op zijn keizerlijke troon (door Ingres)
* We rijden in Europa rechts.
* In het gehele gebied werden dezelfde maten en gewichten zoals de kilo, de meter en de liter ingevoerd; oude lokale maten werden afgeschaft.
* Een gestandaardiseerde registratie van geboorten, huwelijken, echtscheidingen en overlijdens werd ingevoerd: de Burgerlijke Stand. Mensen moesten een definitieve spellingswijze van de veelal bestaande achternaam opgeven; slechts in het noorden van Nederland waren vele namen daarvóór nog niet gefixeerd. In andere streken van Nederland bestonden 'vaste' achternamen soms al sinds de middeleeuwen. Er bestaat een hardnekkige mythe dat mensen 'ludieke' achternamen als Naaktgeboren of Poepjes kozen; in werkelijkheid bestonden deze namen al langer, en zijn ze niet specifiek bij de vastlegging van de namen 'bedacht'. Zo is Poepjes het patroniem van de Friese naam Poppo, en bestonden bijnamen als Naaktgeboren al vóór de Franse tijd.[1]
* Veel (burgerlijke) wetgeving stamt uit deze tijd, zie het artikel over de Code Napoléon.
* De maatschappelijke standen werden afgeschaft en hiermee tevens de speciale voorrechten en privileges van de geestelijkheid en de aristocratie. Dezen hadden voortaan dezelfde rechten en plichten als de burgerij.
* Veel versnipperde kleine staatjes, vorstendommen en heerlijkheden werden samengevoegd tot grotere overzichtelijke eenheden zoals in het gebied van het aloude Heilige Roomse Rijk waar vele kleine vorstendommen en staatjes bijeen gevoegd werden (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss). Een voorbeeld was de nieuwe Rijnbond. In het gebied van Nederland werd in deze tijd het departement van de Neder-Maas gevormd: de latere provincie Limburg in het Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Dit bestond voorheen uit talloze versnipperde gebiedjes en heerlijkheden.
* Onderwijs en gezondheidszorg werden beter geregeld en beter toegankelijk gemaakt voor de gewone burgers.
* Carrièremogelijkheden voor iedereen in overheidsbestuur en leger (de hogere functies hierin waren voorheen bijna uitsluitend het terrein van de aristocratie) omdat vanaf Napoleon iemands capaciteiten belangrijker werden dan iemands afkomst.
* Nadat Napoleon in 1815 was verslagen, werd de geroofde kunst teruggeëist. De kunstwerken werden niet langer als de privécollectie beschouwd van een koning of prins. Het was het begin van de nationale musea in de meeste Europese landen.
Bezette gebieden, bondgenoten en vijanden
Bezette gebieden en bondgenoten
Frankrijk had Nederland en delen van Duitsland en Italië in zijn macht. Napoleon zette daar verschillende familieleden op de troon: zijn oudere broer Jozef werd koning van Napels en later Spanje, zijn broer Lodewijk koning van Holland, zijn broer Jérôme koning van Westfalen, zijn zus Elisa prinses van Lucca en Piombino en groothertogin van Toscane, zijn zwager Joachim Murat eveneens koning van Napels (na Jozef) en zijn stiefzoon Eugène de Beauharnais onderkoning van het Koninkrijk Italië.
In 1801 voegden Oostenrijk en Rusland zich hierbij. Engeland sloot zich in 1802 aan. Napoleon had toen voldoende politieke rust en kon beginnen met de heropbouw van Frankrijk.
Vijanden
Napoleon werd in eerste instantie door de Europese staten gezien als degene die in Frankrijk de onrust na de Franse Revolutie de kop wist in te drukken. Zijn veroveringsdrang en zijn monarchistische neigingen boezemden dan weer vrees in. Ook zijn 'zelfkroning' tot keizer werd door de vorstenhuizen niet gewaardeerd. Vanaf 1803 kreeg Napoleon daardoor steeds meer vijanden. Engeland was de eerste die het bondgenootschap opzegde, daarna sloten Rusland, Zweden, het Heilige Roomse Rijk, Oostenrijk en Napels zich hierbij aan en samen verklaarden ze Frankrijk de oorlog. De Oostenrijkers vielen Beieren binnen en Napoleon vocht terug. Hij versloeg een groot Oostenrijks leger bij Ulm, en ging toen door naar Wenen en bezette de Oostenrijkse hoofdstad. De Oostenrijkse en Russische legers wilden Wenen terugveroveren maar dit lukte hen niet. Deze slag werd in Austerlitz beslecht.
De Russische veldtocht van "La Grande Armée"
Zie Veldtocht van Napoleon naar Rusland voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.
Het bondgenootschap van Rusland met Frankrijk leidde tot klachten van de Russische handel en nijverheid. Zij waren grotendeels afhankelijk van handelsbetrekkingen met Engeland, terwijl één van de voorwaarden van het bondgenootschap deelname aan de blokkade van Engeland was. Dit stond namelijk in het Continentaal stelsel. De Russische tsaar, Alexander I, zag dat zijn economie schade opliep, en trachtte deze voorwaarden te verzachten. Napoleon bleek echter doof voor deze klachten, en uiteindelijk herstelde de tsaar het contact met zijn oude handelspartner Engeland. Op 31 december 1810 liet Rusland weten geen bondgenoot meer te willen zijn van Frankrijk. Napoleon was het hier niet mee eens, en trok naar Rusland; hij had het plan om heel Europa te veroveren. In 1812 maakten Frankrijk en Rusland zich dan ook klaar voor de oorlog.
Napoleons terugtocht uit Rusland (door Northern)
Napoleons terugtocht uit Rusland (door Northern)
Napoleon stelde een leger van 500.000 man van verschillende nationaliteiten samen aan de oostgrens van het huidige Polen. Naast Fransen (50% bij infanterie, 35% bij cavalerie) waren ook Italianen, Polen, Pruisen, Zwitsers, Nederlanders, Duitsers en Spanjaarden vertegenwoordigd. Het leger werd "La Grande Armée" genoemd, maar velen waren nog onder de twintig en geronseld uit weeshuizen. Op 22 juni verklaarde Napoleon aan Rusland de oorlog. Hij inspecteerde zijn troepen die dag. De volgende dag begon hij met de oversteek van de rivier Nemunas (Memel). De oversteek werd gecompleteerd op 24 juni, waarna hij Rusland verder binnenviel. "Over twee maanden vraagt Rusland mij om vrede" ('Avant deux mois, la Russie me demandera la paix'), zei hij. Helaas voor Napoleon werd er niet gevochten in Finland (door de Zweden), en ook niet via de Balkan. Toen de Russen zagen hoe groot het leger van Napoleon was, trokken ze zich terug. Op hun terugweg pasten ze de tactiek van de verschroeide aarde toe, ze vernielden alles wat maar bruikbaar zou kunnen zijn voor Napoleon, en vergiftigden zelfs de waterputten. In het leger van Napoleon braken allerlei besmettelijke ziekten uit, zoals tuberculose en vlektyfus. Napoleon had gedacht de Russen vlak over de grens al te verslaan en verder van het veroverde land te leven, maar moest een uitputtende tocht maken met schermutselingen en gebrek aan voorraden.
Op 15 augustus, de verjaardag van Napoleon, bereikte zijn leger de Dnjepr. Confrontaties met het Russische leger werden door Napoleon gewonnen, maar doordat de Russen zich steeds verder terugtrokken werd hij steeds dieper Rusland ingelokt. Na 800 kilometer in 82 dagen bereikte hij Moskou. Op dat moment was al meer dan de helft van het leger van Napoleon omgekomen, en nog steeds had hij geen beslissende slag kunnen leveren. De Russische verliezen waren groter, maar de Russen konden deze nog aanzuiveren. Het Russische leger onder aanvoering van veldmaarschalk Michail Koetoezov had besloten Moskou niet te verdedigen, maar de stad te evacueren, en ook het leger oostelijk van Moskou terug te trekken. Napoleon "kreeg" Moskou wel, maar de tsaar hoefde zich niet over te geven. Bovendien staken de Russen ook hun eigen "tweede hoofdstad" in brand om zo Napoleon uit te putten. De Russen wilden geen vredesverdrag, en door tekort aan voedsel kon Napoleon niet anders doen dan zich terugtrekken. De grote brand in Moskou droeg zeker bij aan de Russische eindzege, maar de gouverneur Rostoptsjin beleefde er weinig plezier aan. Het aanstichten van de brand is hem tot zijn dood kwalijk genomen.
De terugtocht uit Rusland was verschrikkelijk: Napoleon kwam terug op zijn besluit een andere route te nemen. Daar waren de boeren al op de heenweg geplunderd. De honger werd zo acuut dat de soldaten overgingen tot kannibalisme en ook insecten, katten en de kadavers van paarden opaten, die ze op de heenweg hadden achtergelaten. Na de herfstregens volgde een Russische winter, met temperaturen ver beneden het vriespunt. Behalve door ondervoeding overleden nu ook vele soldaten door bevriezing. Toen het leger de rivier de Berezina overstak, begaf een van de geïmproviseerde bruggen het, en vele soldaten kwamen in het ijskoude water om. Het leger werd steeds aangevallen, en toen ze op 18 december 1812 de Russische grens bereikten was nog ongeveer een derde van de soldaten in leven.
Karikatuur Napoleon als Parijse Notenkraker
Karikatuur Napoleon als Parijse Notenkraker
Napoleon wist dat de tocht naar Rusland een enorme blunder was, maar gaf de strenge winter, die in verband wordt gebracht met een aantal vulkaanuitbarstingen en El Niño, de schuld. De rampzalig verlopen veldtocht leidde tot een anti-Franse stemming in alle landen onder Frans gezag en tot onrust in Italië, de Nederlanden en Zwitserland. In Spanje raakten de Fransen in het defensief. Pruisen, tot dan toe een onwillige bondgenoot, verklaarde de keizer de oorlog. Rusland stond dus niet langer alleen. Frankrijk gaf zich echter nog niet gewonnen en versterkte zijn leger. In mei 1813 versloegen de Fransen hun Pruisische en Russische tegenstanders te Lützen en bij de Slag bij Bautzen. Maar in augustus 1813 rukten drie tegen Napoleon verbonden legers op naar Saksen (de Oostenrijkers, een Russisch-Pruisisch leger en een legermacht van Zweden en Russen). Tussen 16 en 19 oktober vond bij Leipzig de grote Volkerenslag plaats, waarin Napoleon verpletterend werd verslagen. De keizer trok zich vervolgens terug achter de Rijn. Ondanks zijn desastreuze nederlaag hoopte hij Frankrijk nog voor een invasie te kunnen behoeden.
Met zijn resterende troepen (ondanks een tekort aan manschappen) kon hij toch nog de geallieerden een tijdje op afstand houden. Maar toen Napoleon naar Lotharingen trok om de geallieerde bevoorradingslijnen af te snijden, openden de Verbondenen onverwacht hun offensief richting de Franse hoofdstad. Deze bleek niet voldoende voorbereid op een dergelijke aanval. Op 31 maart 1814 werd Parijs veroverd. Napoleon werd op 6 april 1814 gedwongen afstand te doen van de troon, en werd verbannen naar Elba, een eiland in de Middellandse Zee vlakbij de kust van Italië. Lodewijk XVIII nam de macht in Frankrijk over. Deze ging echter tot nieuwe zuiveringen over (Witte Terreur).
De Honderd Dagen van Elba naar Waterloo
Zie Honderd Dagen (1815) voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.
Tien maanden na de verbanning naar Elba ontsnapte Napoleon en ging hij terug naar Parijs. Hij reisde via de vernoemde 'route Napoleon' naar Grenoble, kreeg steun van legeronderdelen, en verder. Hij kreeg de steun van het volk omdat het niet tevreden was met Lodewijk XVIII. Deze gaf nog wel opdracht Napoleon te arresteren, maar alle agenten en legers die werden gestuurd liepen naar Napoleon over. Het volk was de Witte Terreur zat, en bij het leger was Napoleon nog altijd zeer populair. Zij namen het op voor Napoleon, en Lodewijk vluchtte. De geallieerden, die op dat moment juist in Wenen een congres (zie Congres van Wenen) hadden belegd om de nieuwe grenzen van Europa te bepalen, schrokken hiervan.
Napoleon verslagen bij Waterloo
Nadat Napoleon de macht weer had overgenomen verklaarde hij slechts Frankrijk vreedzaam te willen regeren. De geallieerden geloofden hier niets van, dus stelde hij een nieuw leger samen. Rusland, Oostenrijk, Pruisen en Engeland maakten zich klaar voor een nieuwe oorlog, Napoleon moest zich verdedigen om niet al te kwetsbaar over te komen.
Napoleon wilde in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden de Engelsen en de Pruisen verslaan, voordat ook de Oostenrijkers een leger konden sturen. De Fransen, de Engelsen en een klein contingent Nederlandse troepen troffen elkaar vlak bij Waterloo. Napoleon viel meerdere keren aan, maar de Engelsen, onder leiding van de hertog van Wellington, hielden stand en toen de Pruisen zich bij de Engelsen aansloten, verloor Napoleon op 18 juni 1815 de slag bij Waterloo.
Napoleón Bonaparte door Jacques-Louis David.
Napoleón Bonaparte door Jacques-Louis David.
Door zijn soldaten aan hun lot over te laten, kon Napoleon ontsnappen. Hij vluchtte naar de havenstad Rochefort en wilde daarvandaan naar de Verenigde Staten. De haven werd door de Engelsen geblokkeerd, en Napoleon zag geen andere uitweg dan zich over te geven. Op 22 juni 1815 moest Napoleon voor de tweede keer afstand doen van de troon en dit keer voorgoed.
Ballingschap op St. Helena
De Engelsen beloofden hem aanvankelijk asiel in hun eigen land, maar eenmaal met Napoleon in handen verbraken ze die belofte en verbanden ze de keizer naar het afgelegen eiland Sint-Helena in de Atlantische Oceaan nabij Zuid-Afrika, waar hij overigens met respect door zijn bewakers werd behandeld. Napoleon bracht zijn laatste jaren door met tuinieren en het schrijven van zijn herinneringen. Gedurende zijn zesjarige verblijf op Sint-Helena werd Napoleon onder anderen terzijde gestaan door graaf Charles-Tristan de Montholon, een voormalig brigadegeneraal, die later executeur testamentair van de keizer werd.
Op 5 mei 1821 stierf Napoleon Bonaparte op Sint-Helena, hij was toen 51 jaar oud. Oorspronkelijk werd aangenomen dat hij was overleden aan kanker, waarschijnlijk maagkanker. Er zou hierbij sprake zijn geweest van een erfelijke vorm van diffuse maagkanker, omdat ook zijn zus, zijn vader en zijn opa aan vaderszijde vermoedelijk aan deze kwaal zijn gestorven.[2] Uit later onderzoek is gebleken dat in zijn haar een hoge concentratie arsenicum aanwezig was, wat zou kunnen wijzen op moord. Recent onderzoek toonde echter aan dat die hoge concentraties arsenicum ook al in zijn haar aanwezig waren voordat hij werd verbannen. De ware doodsoorzaak kan dus alleen nog worden vastgesteld als er een autopsie op het lichaam mag worden uitgevoerd. Overigens werd arsenicum vaak voorgeschreven door artsen voor behandeling van maagklachten en psychische problemen. Napoleon had tijdens zijn succesvolle jaren al te lijden van maagklachten zodat hij dit middel waarschijnlijk van zijn eigen artsen al voorgeschreven kreeg.
Napoleons lichaam werd overgedragen aan Frankrijk en werd later in een praalgraf in de Dôme des Invalides te Parijs bijgezet. Dit is een van de bezienswaardigheden voor toeristen die de Franse hoofdstad aandoen.
Familieleven
Napoleon was stichter van de dynastie Napoleon. Zijn broers werden geacht het huis Bonaparte te zijn. Tijdens zijn leven is hij twee maal getrouwd geweest. In beide gevallen had het huwelijk een politieke of dynastieke achtergrond. Het huwelijk met Joséphine de Beauharnais was gelukkig maar hij moest scheiden om zijn wankele keizerrijk een wettige erfgenaam te kunnen nalaten. Het huwelijk met de Oostenrijkse keizersdochter was een politieke alliantie. De jonge vrouw verliet haar echtgenoot toen zij de kans kreeg en weigerde zich in de zomer van 1815 of op Sint-Helena bij hem te voegen.
Napoleon zag zich na de dood van zijn vader als gezinshoofd. Hij bevorderde de loopbanen van zijn broers en verhief hen op hoge posten. De familiezieke Napoleon zag hun onbekwaamheid en hun corruptie door de vingers zoals hij dat ook bij zijn medewerkers deed. Op Sint-Helena noemde hij zijn verwanten "domkoppen, dieven en hoeren".[3]
Vrouwen en kinderen
Napoleon had talloze liefdesaffaires met vrouwen en verwekte verschillende buitenechtelijke kinderen, naast zijn enige wettige zoon Napoleon II. De eerste belangrijke vrouw in zijn leven was Désirée Clary, de schoonzuster van Jozef Bonaparte en latere koningin van Zweden. Zij en Napoleon waren sinds 1794 samen en in 1795 en 1796 verloofd. Désirée huwde in 1798 Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, de latere Karel XIV van Zweden.
Napoleón als Eerste Consul door Antoine-Jean Gros
Napoleón als Eerste Consul door Antoine-Jean Gros
Napoleon Bonaparte
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Napoleon I 1769-1821
Napoleon Bonaparte door J.A.D. Ingres
Keizer der Fransen
Periode 1804-1814
Voorganger Eerste Franse Republiek
Opvolger Lodewijk XVIII (koning)
Keizer der Fransen
Periode 1815
Voorganger Lodewijk XVIII (koning)
Opvolger Napoleon II
Koning van Italië
Periode 1805-1814
Voorganger --
Opvolger --
Vader Carlo Maria Buonaparte
Moeder Maria Laetitia Ramolino
Dynastie Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte (Ajaccio (Corsica), 15 augustus 1769 — Sint-Helena, 5 mei 1821) was Eerste Consul van Frankrijk (1799 - 1804) en daarna keizer der Fransen (1804 - 1815). Napoleon is vooral belangrijk als militair leider van het Franse leger in deze periodes, en is verder bekend door zijn heerschappij als vorst in het Frankrijk van na de revolutie, door zijn veldtocht naar Moskou en door zijn ondergang in Waterloo. De combinatie legerleider - staatshoofd, en dit op Europese schaal, maakt hem tot alleenheerser (of dictator) van een groot deel van Europa rond het jaar 1800.
Zijn functies waren als volgt:
* Eerste Consul van Frankrijk van 11 november 1799 tot 18 mei 1804
* Keizer der Fransen van 1804 tot 6 april 1814 en van 20 maart tot 22 juni 1815
* Koning van Italië van 31 maart 1805 tot 1814
* Beschermheer van de Rijnbond van 12 juni 1806 tot 1813.
Inhoud
[verbergen]
* 1 Jeugd
* 2 Napoleon aan de macht
o 2.1 Evaluatie: zijn kwaliteiten en foute inschattingen
o 2.2 Vernieuwingen ingevoerd tijdens het Napoleontische bewind
* 3 Bezette gebieden, bondgenoten en vijanden
o 3.1 Bezette gebieden en bondgenoten
o 3.2 Vijanden
* 4 De Russische veldtocht van "La Grande Armée"
* 5 De Honderd Dagen van Elba naar Waterloo
o 5.1 Napoleon verslagen bij Waterloo
* 6 Ballingschap op St. Helena
* 7 Familieleven
o 7.1 Vrouwen en kinderen
* 8 Zie ook
* 9 Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
Jeugd
Napoleone Buonaparte (zijn echte, Italiaanse geboortenaam) werd geboren in Ajaccio op het eiland Corsica. Hij was als volwassene niet echt groot van gestalte: ongeveer 1.67m maar viel hierin niet bijzonder op bij zijn tijdgenoten. De gemiddelde Italiaan van zijn generatie was van dezelfde lengte. De verhalen dat Napoleon een echt 'onderdeurtje' was zijn waarschijnlijk terug te voeren op spotprenten in de Britse pers. Zijn ouders, Carlo Buonaparte en Maria Laetitia Ramolino, collaboreerden met de Franse bezetting op Corsica. Hierdoor kon Napoleon een studiebeurs in Frankrijk krijgen. Hij studeerde aan de militaire scholen van Brienne en Parijs. Toen hij deze laatste verliet was hij tweede luitenant van de artillerie.
Maar de jonge held zoekt naar carrièremogelijkheden en keert terwijl Frankrijk van alle kanten wordt aangevallen terug naar Corsica in een poging zich op te dringen als opvolger van Paoli, de vrijheidsstrijder. Het lukt hem in 1792 de positie van luitenant-kolonel te veroveren in de koningsgezinde Corsicaanse Nationale Garde. Voor het uitbreken van de Franse Revolutie vinden we de jonge Napoleon echter weer terug in Frankrijk; hij sloot zich hierbij aan. In Corsica was hij niet meer gewenst en verdacht van "heulen met de vijand" (Frankrijk) In 1793 nam hij, nu als kapitein van de "revolutionaire" artillerie, deel aan de verovering van Toulon op, door de Engelsen gesteunde, Franse koningsgezinden. Hiervoor kreeg hij een eervolle vermelding en werd hij benoemd tot brigadegeneraal, op 24-jarige leeftijd.
Napoleon Bonaparte als luitenant-kolonel van de jagers van de Keizerlijke Garde
Napoleon Bonaparte als luitenant-kolonel van de jagers van de Keizerlijke Garde
Napoleon aan de macht
In maart 1796 kreeg Napoleon als 26-jarige het bevel over het Franse leger aan het Italiaanse front, een leger van ongeveer 30.000 man. Er was gebrek aan voedsel en kleding, waardoor ook vechtlust en motivatie ontbraken. Napoleon deed hen grootse beloften om het moreel van de troepen op te vijzelen: zo zei hij bijvoorbeeld tegen zijn soldaten dat hij ze naar de rijkste plekken ter wereld zou leiden, waar ze eer, roem en rijkdom zouden krijgen. En zo trok het leger naar Italië.
De Italiaanse veldtocht moest vanuit drie richtingen worden uitgevoerd. Het leger moest volgens opdracht van de regering (het Directoire), door de Povlakte en langs de Etsch naar Wenen trekken, terwijl de Oostenrijkse hoofdstad vanuit het noorden zou worden aangevallen door het Samber-en-Maasleger. Napoleon wist dit wel, maar had zo zijn eigen ideeën. Hij was namelijk heel goed in het vinden van de zwakke plek van zijn tegenstanders. En zo versloeg hij ze een voor een.
Eerst veroverde hij Illesimo en daarna Milaan. Napoleon liet buiten medeweten van de Franse regering om zijn tegenstanders verdragen volgens zijn eigen voorwaarden ondertekenen. Hij dwong de Kerkelijke Staat en de hertogen van Parma en Modena tot een wapenstilstand. Napoleon veroverde Italië en hij liet de bevolking zware schattingen betalen, die hij naar Parijs stuurde om de regering daar rustig te houden.
Ook moesten de veroverde gebieden dezelfde grondwet aannemen als Frankrijk. De successen van Napoleon in Italië bleven ook in Frankrijk niet onopgemerkt en hij werd steeds populairder bij het Franse volk. Napoleon was nu overal bekend en was door zijn overwinningen de held van Frankrijk geworden.
Napoleon bij het doorkruisen van de Alpen (door David)
Napoleon bij het doorkruisen van de Alpen (door David)
Na de overwinningen in Italië - dat hij later zijn Koninkrijk Italië noemde - ging hij naar Egypte, want hij wilde ook gebieden in het Oosten hebben. De regering wilde eigenlijk dat hij oorlog tegen Engeland voerde, maar Napoleon was van mening dat de Engelsen het best bestreden konden worden door hun handel in het Oosten (met Brits Indië) te blokkeren. Hij behaalde de overmacht en trok via Malta Egypte binnen. Al snel veroverde hij Egypte, maar Engeland won enkele dagen later, op 1 augustus 1798, een zeeslag (Slag op de Nijl) en had daardoor het Middellandse Zeegebied in handen, waardoor Napoleons leger in Egypte vastzat.
Ook Oostenrijk, Turkije, Rusland en Napels verklaarden de Fransen de oorlog. Hierdoor verloor Frankrijk al zijn bezittingen in Italië, op Genua na. Maar toen Napoleon de Franse toestand vernam, ontsnapte hij uit Egypte en trok naar Parijs.
Hij kreeg de steun van het volk, omdat men met de huidige regering ontevreden was. Hij zette de regering tijdens een staatsgreep af (9 november 1799), wat het einde van het Directoire betekende. Er kwam een nieuwe grondwet, die inhield dat er drie mannen, consuls genaamd, de macht kregen. Het Consulaat werd definitief op 15 december 1799 geïnstalleerd. Napoleon werd de eerste consul, advocaat de Cambacérès tweede consul en Lebrun derde consul. Zij mochten 10 jaar aan de macht blijven, maar eigenlijk had alleen de eerste consul, Napoleon, de macht over heel Frankrijk in handen.
Hij deed er alles aan Frankrijk weer op de been te krijgen, en hij begreep dat je een land het beste kon opbouwen als er vrede was. Napoleon bood Engeland en Oostenrijk vrede aan, maar deze waren het niet eens met de voorwaarden en besloten samen een bondgenootschap tegen Frankrijk te vormen.
Hierdoor braken er weer nieuwe oorlogen uit, maar het leger van Napoleon won uiteindelijk toch. Op 9 februari 1801 werd in Lunéville het vredesverdrag door Oostenrijk en Napels getekend. Het bondgenootschap tussen Oostenrijk en Engeland was inmiddels verbroken. Door dit vredesverdrag kreeg Frankrijk weer in het grootste deel van Italië de macht. Later tekende ook Rusland het vredesverdrag.
Napoleon in Egypte door Jean-Léon Gérôme
Napoleon in Egypte door Jean-Léon Gérôme
Op 15 augustus van datzelfde jaar sloot Napoleon een overeenkomst met Paus Pius VII, genoemd het Concordaat. Zo werd Napoleon ook geliefd bij de katholieken. Op 27 maart 1802 werd eindelijk ook vrede gesloten met de Engelsen.
Dit maakte Napoleon immens populair. Het volk bepaalde dat hij consul voor het leven zou worden, en door middel van een nieuwe grondwet, waarin bepaald werd dat hij zelf verdragen mocht sluiten en zelf rechterlijke beslissingen ongeldig mocht verklaren, verstevigde hij zijn machtspositie. Napoleon werd alleenheerser over Frankrijk. Frankrijk was een dictatuur geworden.
Maar Napoleon wilde meer dan consul voor het leven zijn, en hij liet zich door de senaat tot "Keizer der Fransen" uitroepen. Door een volksstemming gebeurde dit dan ook. Op 2 december 1804 kroonde Napoleon zichzelf in aanwezigheid van Paus Pius VII in de Notre-Dame tot Keizer. Later werd hij door dezelfde paus na zijn aanvallen op pauselijke staten geëxcommuniceerd. Het Louvre, waar veel geroofde kunst werd ondergebracht, werd omgedoopt in Musée Napoléon.
Evaluatie: zijn kwaliteiten en foute inschattingen
Napoleon was als militair in opleiding uitzonderlijk goed in rekenen en kaartlezen. Het rekenen paste hij toe in de artillerie: het berekenen van een kanonschot, en het gebruiken van die wijsheid. Het kaartlezen gebruikte hij zijn leven lang om vanaf (vaak slordige en foute) kaarten een goede positie en opstelling na te streven. Het blijkt dat Napoleon de slagen won, die hij op zijn zelfgekozen slagveld voerde. Een combinatie van die twee talenten leidde tot zijn capaciteit om een legerverplaatsing over vele honderden kilometers kon plannen, waardoor hij een belangrijk of beslissend voordeel kon halen.
Napoleon was een groot organisator. Hij heeft talloze bestuurlijke vernieuwingen doorgevoerd en in heel Europa een voorbeeld van een strak geregeld en doeltreffend bewind nagelaten. Hij was ook een bekwaam wetgever die zich door voortreffelijke juristen als Cambacérès liet adviseren.
Napoleon kroont zijn vrouw Joséphine de Beauharnais tot keizerin (door David; detail)
Napoleon kroont zijn vrouw Joséphine de Beauharnais tot keizerin (door David; detail)
Hij beging de fout dat hij het belang van de Engelse blokkade van Europese continentale havens (van Marseille tot aan Riga) onderschatte. Merkwaardig was dat de blokkade eenzijdig was; Frankrijk exporteerde graan en zonder dat graan zou Engeland verhongerd zijn. Napoleon dacht nog in mercantilistische termen en dacht dat het stilleggen van de Britse export de Britse economie zou ruïneren.
Napoleon verkeek zich, zoals Adolf Hitler ruim een eeuw later, op het effect van de extreme koude en de enorme afstanden in Rusland vergeleken met die van westelijk Europa. Daardoor had men te maken met zeer lange aanvoerlijnen en geen mogelijkheid tot ruil van krijgsgevangenen.
De Spaanse veroveringstocht was een kostbaar fiasco. De strijd tegen Wellington en de Spaanse opstandelingen heeft vele duizenden doden gekost en in 1814 stonden de Engelsen voor Toulouse.
Napoleon ontwikkelde zich meer en meer tot een tiran. Censuur en een uitgebreide geheime politie onderdrukten alle kritiek op de keizer. Door steeds jongere rekruten op te roepen en voortdurend oorlog te blijven voeren heeft Napoleon Frankrijk demografisch en economisch uitgeput.
Napoleon was een zeer bekwaam propagandist van zijn eigen zaak maar een slecht redenaar. Zowel bij zijn optreden voor de "Raad der Ouden" in Saint-Cloud tijdens zijn staatsgreep in 1799 als bij zijn rede voor de Senaat na de nederlaag in Rusland heeft Napoleon staan hakkelen en sloeg zo een slecht figuur.
Waar zijn eigen macht niet in het geding was kon Napoleon tolerant en een ware zoon van de Franse Revolutie zijn. Hij emancipeerde de Joden en zag zich, theatraal als hij was, als de "Tweede Mozes" die een Groot Sanhedrin bijeen zou roepen. Van het inschakelen van de Joden voor de Keizerlijke zaak kwam weinig terecht en in 1812 beperkte Napoleon hun politieke en economische rechten weer. Hij werd desondanks geliefd bij de Europese Joden en Heinrich Heine vereerde de keizer. De Napoleontische Code Pénal maakte een einde aan de vervolging van homoseksuelen. De slavernij werd door Napoleon daarentegen wèl verdedigd maar zijn poging om Santo Domingo te heroveren mislukte jammerlijk. Voor de emancipatie van vrouwen had de Corsicaan geen oog. Napoleon waardeerde ontwikkelde vrouwen als Madame de Staël beslist niet.
De waardering van de persoon en zijn werk worden door geschiedvervalsingen, in de hand gewerkt door de door Napoleon doelbewust gecreëerde legende, gehinderd. Hij heeft zijn bekwaamste generaals stelselmatig belasterd en doodgezwegen. Op Sint-Helena is door de verbannen keizer zes jaar lang hard gewerkt aan een revisie van zijn loopbaan en de legende van de goedbedoelende, populaire staatsman. Alle mislukkingen werden op het conto van anderen geschreven. Door de verwrongen beeldvorming en de halve waarheden waarmee voor- en tegenstanders hun boeken vulden is het moeilijk om een objectief beeld te krijgen.
De Napoleonliteratuur telde in 1946 al meer dan 100.000 werken. Sommige biografen zien hem als een hebzuchtige en nietsontziende tiran en trekken vergelijkingen met Hitler en Stalin. Anderen zien hem als de goedhartige "kleine korporaal" en benadrukken zijn prestaties.
Vernieuwingen ingevoerd tijdens het Napoleontische bewind
Gedurende het bewind van Napoleon werden veel bestuurlijke en nuttige vernieuwingen in het door Frankrijk beheerste gebied ingevoerd. Nadat de Franse legers verdreven waren, bleven in de vroegere Franse gebieden veel van deze vernieuwingen toch gehandhaafd omdat deze hun nut ondertussen bewezen hadden:
Napoleon op zijn keizerlijke troon (door Ingres)
Napoleon op zijn keizerlijke troon (door Ingres)
* We rijden in Europa rechts.
* In het gehele gebied werden dezelfde maten en gewichten zoals de kilo, de meter en de liter ingevoerd; oude lokale maten werden afgeschaft.
* Een gestandaardiseerde registratie van geboorten, huwelijken, echtscheidingen en overlijdens werd ingevoerd: de Burgerlijke Stand. Mensen moesten een definitieve spellingswijze van de veelal bestaande achternaam opgeven; slechts in het noorden van Nederland waren vele namen daarvóór nog niet gefixeerd. In andere streken van Nederland bestonden 'vaste' achternamen soms al sinds de middeleeuwen. Er bestaat een hardnekkige mythe dat mensen 'ludieke' achternamen als Naaktgeboren of Poepjes kozen; in werkelijkheid bestonden deze namen al langer, en zijn ze niet specifiek bij de vastlegging van de namen 'bedacht'. Zo is Poepjes het patroniem van de Friese naam Poppo, en bestonden bijnamen als Naaktgeboren al vóór de Franse tijd.[1]
* Veel (burgerlijke) wetgeving stamt uit deze tijd, zie het artikel over de Code Napoléon.
* De maatschappelijke standen werden afgeschaft en hiermee tevens de speciale voorrechten en privileges van de geestelijkheid en de aristocratie. Dezen hadden voortaan dezelfde rechten en plichten als de burgerij.
* Veel versnipperde kleine staatjes, vorstendommen en heerlijkheden werden samengevoegd tot grotere overzichtelijke eenheden zoals in het gebied van het aloude Heilige Roomse Rijk waar vele kleine vorstendommen en staatjes bijeen gevoegd werden (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss). Een voorbeeld was de nieuwe Rijnbond. In het gebied van Nederland werd in deze tijd het departement van de Neder-Maas gevormd: de latere provincie Limburg in het Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Dit bestond voorheen uit talloze versnipperde gebiedjes en heerlijkheden.
* Onderwijs en gezondheidszorg werden beter geregeld en beter toegankelijk gemaakt voor de gewone burgers.
* Carrièremogelijkheden voor iedereen in overheidsbestuur en leger (de hogere functies hierin waren voorheen bijna uitsluitend het terrein van de aristocratie) omdat vanaf Napoleon iemands capaciteiten belangrijker werden dan iemands afkomst.
* Nadat Napoleon in 1815 was verslagen, werd de geroofde kunst teruggeëist. De kunstwerken werden niet langer als de privécollectie beschouwd van een koning of prins. Het was het begin van de nationale musea in de meeste Europese landen.
Bezette gebieden, bondgenoten en vijanden
Bezette gebieden en bondgenoten
Frankrijk had Nederland en delen van Duitsland en Italië in zijn macht. Napoleon zette daar verschillende familieleden op de troon: zijn oudere broer Jozef werd koning van Napels en later Spanje, zijn broer Lodewijk koning van Holland, zijn broer Jérôme koning van Westfalen, zijn zus Elisa prinses van Lucca en Piombino en groothertogin van Toscane, zijn zwager Joachim Murat eveneens koning van Napels (na Jozef) en zijn stiefzoon Eugène de Beauharnais onderkoning van het Koninkrijk Italië.
In 1801 voegden Oostenrijk en Rusland zich hierbij. Engeland sloot zich in 1802 aan. Napoleon had toen voldoende politieke rust en kon beginnen met de heropbouw van Frankrijk.
Vijanden
Napoleon werd in eerste instantie door de Europese staten gezien als degene die in Frankrijk de onrust na de Franse Revolutie de kop wist in te drukken. Zijn veroveringsdrang en zijn monarchistische neigingen boezemden dan weer vrees in. Ook zijn 'zelfkroning' tot keizer werd door de vorstenhuizen niet gewaardeerd. Vanaf 1803 kreeg Napoleon daardoor steeds meer vijanden. Engeland was de eerste die het bondgenootschap opzegde, daarna sloten Rusland, Zweden, het Heilige Roomse Rijk, Oostenrijk en Napels zich hierbij aan en samen verklaarden ze Frankrijk de oorlog. De Oostenrijkers vielen Beieren binnen en Napoleon vocht terug. Hij versloeg een groot Oostenrijks leger bij Ulm, en ging toen door naar Wenen en bezette de Oostenrijkse hoofdstad. De Oostenrijkse en Russische legers wilden Wenen terugveroveren maar dit lukte hen niet. Deze slag werd in Austerlitz beslecht.
De Russische veldtocht van "La Grande Armée"
Zie Veldtocht van Napoleon naar Rusland voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.
Het bondgenootschap van Rusland met Frankrijk leidde tot klachten van de Russische handel en nijverheid. Zij waren grotendeels afhankelijk van handelsbetrekkingen met Engeland, terwijl één van de voorwaarden van het bondgenootschap deelname aan de blokkade van Engeland was. Dit stond namelijk in het Continentaal stelsel. De Russische tsaar, Alexander I, zag dat zijn economie schade opliep, en trachtte deze voorwaarden te verzachten. Napoleon bleek echter doof voor deze klachten, en uiteindelijk herstelde de tsaar het contact met zijn oude handelspartner Engeland. Op 31 december 1810 liet Rusland weten geen bondgenoot meer te willen zijn van Frankrijk. Napoleon was het hier niet mee eens, en trok naar Rusland; hij had het plan om heel Europa te veroveren. In 1812 maakten Frankrijk en Rusland zich dan ook klaar voor de oorlog.
Napoleons terugtocht uit Rusland (door Northern)
Napoleons terugtocht uit Rusland (door Northern)
Napoleon stelde een leger van 500.000 man van verschillende nationaliteiten samen aan de oostgrens van het huidige Polen. Naast Fransen (50% bij infanterie, 35% bij cavalerie) waren ook Italianen, Polen, Pruisen, Zwitsers, Nederlanders, Duitsers en Spanjaarden vertegenwoordigd. Het leger werd "La Grande Armée" genoemd, maar velen waren nog onder de twintig en geronseld uit weeshuizen. Op 22 juni verklaarde Napoleon aan Rusland de oorlog. Hij inspecteerde zijn troepen die dag. De volgende dag begon hij met de oversteek van de rivier Nemunas (Memel). De oversteek werd gecompleteerd op 24 juni, waarna hij Rusland verder binnenviel. "Over twee maanden vraagt Rusland mij om vrede" ('Avant deux mois, la Russie me demandera la paix'), zei hij. Helaas voor Napoleon werd er niet gevochten in Finland (door de Zweden), en ook niet via de Balkan. Toen de Russen zagen hoe groot het leger van Napoleon was, trokken ze zich terug. Op hun terugweg pasten ze de tactiek van de verschroeide aarde toe, ze vernielden alles wat maar bruikbaar zou kunnen zijn voor Napoleon, en vergiftigden zelfs de waterputten. In het leger van Napoleon braken allerlei besmettelijke ziekten uit, zoals tuberculose en vlektyfus. Napoleon had gedacht de Russen vlak over de grens al te verslaan en verder van het veroverde land te leven, maar moest een uitputtende tocht maken met schermutselingen en gebrek aan voorraden.
Op 15 augustus, de verjaardag van Napoleon, bereikte zijn leger de Dnjepr. Confrontaties met het Russische leger werden door Napoleon gewonnen, maar doordat de Russen zich steeds verder terugtrokken werd hij steeds dieper Rusland ingelokt. Na 800 kilometer in 82 dagen bereikte hij Moskou. Op dat moment was al meer dan de helft van het leger van Napoleon omgekomen, en nog steeds had hij geen beslissende slag kunnen leveren. De Russische verliezen waren groter, maar de Russen konden deze nog aanzuiveren. Het Russische leger onder aanvoering van veldmaarschalk Michail Koetoezov had besloten Moskou niet te verdedigen, maar de stad te evacueren, en ook het leger oostelijk van Moskou terug te trekken. Napoleon "kreeg" Moskou wel, maar de tsaar hoefde zich niet over te geven. Bovendien staken de Russen ook hun eigen "tweede hoofdstad" in brand om zo Napoleon uit te putten. De Russen wilden geen vredesverdrag, en door tekort aan voedsel kon Napoleon niet anders doen dan zich terugtrekken. De grote brand in Moskou droeg zeker bij aan de Russische eindzege, maar de gouverneur Rostoptsjin beleefde er weinig plezier aan. Het aanstichten van de brand is hem tot zijn dood kwalijk genomen.
De terugtocht uit Rusland was verschrikkelijk: Napoleon kwam terug op zijn besluit een andere route te nemen. Daar waren de boeren al op de heenweg geplunderd. De honger werd zo acuut dat de soldaten overgingen tot kannibalisme en ook insecten, katten en de kadavers van paarden opaten, die ze op de heenweg hadden achtergelaten. Na de herfstregens volgde een Russische winter, met temperaturen ver beneden het vriespunt. Behalve door ondervoeding overleden nu ook vele soldaten door bevriezing. Toen het leger de rivier de Berezina overstak, begaf een van de geïmproviseerde bruggen het, en vele soldaten kwamen in het ijskoude water om. Het leger werd steeds aangevallen, en toen ze op 18 december 1812 de Russische grens bereikten was nog ongeveer een derde van de soldaten in leven.
Karikatuur Napoleon als Parijse Notenkraker
Karikatuur Napoleon als Parijse Notenkraker
Napoleon wist dat de tocht naar Rusland een enorme blunder was, maar gaf de strenge winter, die in verband wordt gebracht met een aantal vulkaanuitbarstingen en El Niño, de schuld. De rampzalig verlopen veldtocht leidde tot een anti-Franse stemming in alle landen onder Frans gezag en tot onrust in Italië, de Nederlanden en Zwitserland. In Spanje raakten de Fransen in het defensief. Pruisen, tot dan toe een onwillige bondgenoot, verklaarde de keizer de oorlog. Rusland stond dus niet langer alleen. Frankrijk gaf zich echter nog niet gewonnen en versterkte zijn leger. In mei 1813 versloegen de Fransen hun Pruisische en Russische tegenstanders te Lützen en bij de Slag bij Bautzen. Maar in augustus 1813 rukten drie tegen Napoleon verbonden legers op naar Saksen (de Oostenrijkers, een Russisch-Pruisisch leger en een legermacht van Zweden en Russen). Tussen 16 en 19 oktober vond bij Leipzig de grote Volkerenslag plaats, waarin Napoleon verpletterend werd verslagen. De keizer trok zich vervolgens terug achter de Rijn. Ondanks zijn desastreuze nederlaag hoopte hij Frankrijk nog voor een invasie te kunnen behoeden.
Met zijn resterende troepen (ondanks een tekort aan manschappen) kon hij toch nog de geallieerden een tijdje op afstand houden. Maar toen Napoleon naar Lotharingen trok om de geallieerde bevoorradingslijnen af te snijden, openden de Verbondenen onverwacht hun offensief richting de Franse hoofdstad. Deze bleek niet voldoende voorbereid op een dergelijke aanval. Op 31 maart 1814 werd Parijs veroverd. Napoleon werd op 6 april 1814 gedwongen afstand te doen van de troon, en werd verbannen naar Elba, een eiland in de Middellandse Zee vlakbij de kust van Italië. Lodewijk XVIII nam de macht in Frankrijk over. Deze ging echter tot nieuwe zuiveringen over (Witte Terreur).
De Honderd Dagen van Elba naar Waterloo
Zie Honderd Dagen (1815) voor het hoofdartikel over dit onderwerp.
Tien maanden na de verbanning naar Elba ontsnapte Napoleon en ging hij terug naar Parijs. Hij reisde via de vernoemde 'route Napoleon' naar Grenoble, kreeg steun van legeronderdelen, en verder. Hij kreeg de steun van het volk omdat het niet tevreden was met Lodewijk XVIII. Deze gaf nog wel opdracht Napoleon te arresteren, maar alle agenten en legers die werden gestuurd liepen naar Napoleon over. Het volk was de Witte Terreur zat, en bij het leger was Napoleon nog altijd zeer populair. Zij namen het op voor Napoleon, en Lodewijk vluchtte. De geallieerden, die op dat moment juist in Wenen een congres (zie Congres van Wenen) hadden belegd om de nieuwe grenzen van Europa te bepalen, schrokken hiervan.
Napoleon verslagen bij Waterloo
Nadat Napoleon de macht weer had overgenomen verklaarde hij slechts Frankrijk vreedzaam te willen regeren. De geallieerden geloofden hier niets van, dus stelde hij een nieuw leger samen. Rusland, Oostenrijk, Pruisen en Engeland maakten zich klaar voor een nieuwe oorlog, Napoleon moest zich verdedigen om niet al te kwetsbaar over te komen.
Napoleon wilde in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden de Engelsen en de Pruisen verslaan, voordat ook de Oostenrijkers een leger konden sturen. De Fransen, de Engelsen en een klein contingent Nederlandse troepen troffen elkaar vlak bij Waterloo. Napoleon viel meerdere keren aan, maar de Engelsen, onder leiding van de hertog van Wellington, hielden stand en toen de Pruisen zich bij de Engelsen aansloten, verloor Napoleon op 18 juni 1815 de slag bij Waterloo.
Napoleón Bonaparte door Jacques-Louis David.
Napoleón Bonaparte door Jacques-Louis David.
Door zijn soldaten aan hun lot over te laten, kon Napoleon ontsnappen. Hij vluchtte naar de havenstad Rochefort en wilde daarvandaan naar de Verenigde Staten. De haven werd door de Engelsen geblokkeerd, en Napoleon zag geen andere uitweg dan zich over te geven. Op 22 juni 1815 moest Napoleon voor de tweede keer afstand doen van de troon en dit keer voorgoed.
Ballingschap op St. Helena
De Engelsen beloofden hem aanvankelijk asiel in hun eigen land, maar eenmaal met Napoleon in handen verbraken ze die belofte en verbanden ze de keizer naar het afgelegen eiland Sint-Helena in de Atlantische Oceaan nabij Zuid-Afrika, waar hij overigens met respect door zijn bewakers werd behandeld. Napoleon bracht zijn laatste jaren door met tuinieren en het schrijven van zijn herinneringen. Gedurende zijn zesjarige verblijf op Sint-Helena werd Napoleon onder anderen terzijde gestaan door graaf Charles-Tristan de Montholon, een voormalig brigadegeneraal, die later executeur testamentair van de keizer werd.
Op 5 mei 1821 stierf Napoleon Bonaparte op Sint-Helena, hij was toen 51 jaar oud. Oorspronkelijk werd aangenomen dat hij was overleden aan kanker, waarschijnlijk maagkanker. Er zou hierbij sprake zijn geweest van een erfelijke vorm van diffuse maagkanker, omdat ook zijn zus, zijn vader en zijn opa aan vaderszijde vermoedelijk aan deze kwaal zijn gestorven.[2] Uit later onderzoek is gebleken dat in zijn haar een hoge concentratie arsenicum aanwezig was, wat zou kunnen wijzen op moord. Recent onderzoek toonde echter aan dat die hoge concentraties arsenicum ook al in zijn haar aanwezig waren voordat hij werd verbannen. De ware doodsoorzaak kan dus alleen nog worden vastgesteld als er een autopsie op het lichaam mag worden uitgevoerd. Overigens werd arsenicum vaak voorgeschreven door artsen voor behandeling van maagklachten en psychische problemen. Napoleon had tijdens zijn succesvolle jaren al te lijden van maagklachten zodat hij dit middel waarschijnlijk van zijn eigen artsen al voorgeschreven kreeg.
Napoleons lichaam werd overgedragen aan Frankrijk en werd later in een praalgraf in de Dôme des Invalides te Parijs bijgezet. Dit is een van de bezienswaardigheden voor toeristen die de Franse hoofdstad aandoen.
Familieleven
Napoleon was stichter van de dynastie Napoleon. Zijn broers werden geacht het huis Bonaparte te zijn. Tijdens zijn leven is hij twee maal getrouwd geweest. In beide gevallen had het huwelijk een politieke of dynastieke achtergrond. Het huwelijk met Joséphine de Beauharnais was gelukkig maar hij moest scheiden om zijn wankele keizerrijk een wettige erfgenaam te kunnen nalaten. Het huwelijk met de Oostenrijkse keizersdochter was een politieke alliantie. De jonge vrouw verliet haar echtgenoot toen zij de kans kreeg en weigerde zich in de zomer van 1815 of op Sint-Helena bij hem te voegen.
Napoleon zag zich na de dood van zijn vader als gezinshoofd. Hij bevorderde de loopbanen van zijn broers en verhief hen op hoge posten. De familiezieke Napoleon zag hun onbekwaamheid en hun corruptie door de vingers zoals hij dat ook bij zijn medewerkers deed. Op Sint-Helena noemde hij zijn verwanten "domkoppen, dieven en hoeren".[3]
Vrouwen en kinderen
Napoleon had talloze liefdesaffaires met vrouwen en verwekte verschillende buitenechtelijke kinderen, naast zijn enige wettige zoon Napoleon II. De eerste belangrijke vrouw in zijn leven was Désirée Clary, de schoonzuster van Jozef Bonaparte en latere koningin van Zweden. Zij en Napoleon waren sinds 1794 samen en in 1795 en 1796 verloofd. Désirée huwde in 1798 Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, de latere Karel XIV van Zweden.
Napoleón als Eerste Consul door Antoine-Jean Gros
Napoleón als Eerste Consul door Antoine-Jean Gros
Rubmifer
Legacy Member
World War II, or the Second World War,[1] was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers,[2] organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, and placed the participants in a state of "total war", erasing the distinction between civil and military resources. This resulted in the complete activation of a nation's economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities for the purposes of the war effort. Over 70 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.[3] The financial cost of the war is estimated at about a trillion 1944 U.S. dollars worldwide,[4][5] making it the most expensive war as well.[6]
The starting date of the war is generally held to be September 1939 with the German invasion of Poland and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by the United Kingdom, France and the British Dominions;[7][8] some sources use other starting points, including the Mukden Incident, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, and the Attack on Pearl Harbor. The Allies were victorious, and, as a result, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as the world's leading superpowers. This set the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. The self determination spawned by the war accelerated decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Western Europe itself began moving toward integration.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Background
* 2 Chronology
* 3 Course of the war
o 3.1 War breaks out
o 3.2 Axis advances
o 3.3 The war becomes global
o 3.4 The tide turns
o 3.5 Allies gain momentum
o 3.6 Allies close in
o 3.7 Axis collapse, Allied victory
* 4 Aftermath
* 5 Impact of the war
o 5.1 Casualties and war crimes
o 5.2 Concentration camps and slave work
o 5.3 Home fronts and production
o 5.4 War time occupation
o 5.5 Advances in technology and warfare
* 6 Historical era
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
Background
Main article: Causes of World War II
In the aftermath of World War I, the defeated German Empire signed the Treaty of Versailles.[9] This caused Germany to lose a significant portion of its territory, prohibited the annexation of other states, limited the size of German armed forces and imposed massive reparations. Russia's Civil war led to the creation of the Soviet Union which soon was under the control of Joseph Stalin. In Italy, Benito Mussolini seized power as a fascist dictator promising to create a "New Roman Empire."[10] The ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against rebelling warlords in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China[11] as the first step of its right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as justification to invade Manchuria; the two nations then fought several small conflicts until the Tanggu Truce in 1933.
German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally
German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally
National Socialist Adolf Hitler became the leader of Germany in 1933 and soon began a massive rearming campaign.[12] This worried France and the United Kingdom, who had lost much in the previous war, as well as Italy, which saw its territorial ambitions threatened by those of Germany.[13] To secure its alliance, the French allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired to conquer. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Saarland was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, speeding up remilitarization and introducing conscription. Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front. The Soviet Union, concerned due to Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, concluded a treaty of mutual assistance with France.
Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, rendering it essentially toothless[14][15] and in June of 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany easing prior restrictions. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August.[16] In October, Italy invaded Ethiopia, with Germany the only major European nation supporting her invasion. Italy then revoked objections to Germany's goal of making Austria a satellite state.[17]
In direct violation of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in March of 1936. He received little response from other European powers.[18] When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July, Hitler and Mussolini supported fascist Generalísimo Francisco Franco's nationalist forces in his civil war against the Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the conflict to test new weapons and methods of warfare[19] and the nationalists would prove victorious in early 1939.
With tensions mounting, efforts to strengthen or consolidate power were made. In October, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis and a month later Germany and Japan, each believing communism and the Soviet Union in particular to be a threat, signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In China, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.[20]
Chronology
Other dates for the beginning of war include the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931,[21][22] the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937,[23][24] or one of several other events. Other sources follow A. J. P. Taylor, who holds that there was a simultaneous Sino-Japanese War in East Asia, and a Second European War in Europe and her colonies, but they did not become a World War until they merged in 1941; at which point the war continued until 1945. This article uses the conventional dating.[25]
The end of the War also has several dates; some sources end it from the armistice of August 14, 1945, rather than the formal surrender; in some European histories, it ended on V-E Day; the Japanese Treaty was not signed until 1951; the Six Power treaties were signed, formally ending the War in Europe, in 1992.
Course of the war
See also: Timeline of World War II
War breaks out
Japanese forces during the Battle of Wuhan
Japanese forces during the Battle of Wuhan
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In mid-1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japan began a full invasion of China. The Soviets quickly lent support to China, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany. Starting at Shanghai, the Japanese pushed Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanjing in December. In June of 1938 Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; though this bought time to prepare their defenses at Wuhan, the city was still taken by October.[26] During this time, Japanese and Soviet forces engaged in a minor skirmish at Lake Khasan; in May of 1939, they became involved in a more serious border war.[27]
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming bolder. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers.[28] Encouraged, Hitler began making claims on the Sudetenland; France and Britain conceded these for a promise of no further territorial demands.[29] Germany soon reneged, and in March 1939 fully occupied Czechoslovakia.
Soviet and German officers in Poland
Soviet and German officers in Poland
Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on Danzig, France and Britain guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece.[30] The Soviet Union also attempted to ally with France and Britain, but was rebuffed due to western suspicions about Soviet motives and capability.[31] Shortly after the Franco-British pledges to Poland, Germany and Italy formalized their own alliance with the Pact of Steel; following this, in a move that shocked all other major powers, Germany and the Soviet Union concluded a non-aggression pact, including a secret agreement to split Poland and eastern Europe between them.[32]
By the start of September 1939, the Soviets had routed Japanese forces[33] and the Germans invaded Poland. France, Britain, and the countries of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany but lent little support other than a small French attack into the Saarland.[34] In mid-September, after signing an armistice with Japan, the Soviets launched their own invasion of Poland.[35] By early October, Poland had been divided between Germany and the Soviet Union. During the battle in Poland, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by early October.[36]
Axis advances
British and French soldiers taken prisoner in Northern France
British and French soldiers taken prisoner in Northern France
Following the invasion of Poland, the Soviets began moving troops into the Baltic region. Finnish resistance in late November led to a four-month war, ending with Finnish concessions.[37] France and the United Kingdom, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans[38] responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting its expulsion from the League of Nations.[38] Though China had the authority to veto such an action, it was unwilling to alienate itself from either the Western powers or the Soviet Union and instead abstained.[38] The Soviet Union was displeased by this course of action and as a result suspended all military aid to China.[38] By mid-1940, the Soviet Union's occupation of the Baltics was completed with the installation of pro-Soviet puppet governments.[39]
In Western Europe, British troops deployed to the Continent, but neither Germany nor the Allies launched direct attacks on the other. In April, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure shipments of iron-ore from Sweden which the allies would try to disrupt. Denmark immediately capitulated, and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.[40] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain by Winston Churchill on May 10, 1940.[41]
On that same day, Germany invaded France and the Low Countries. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few weeks. British troops were forced to evacuate the continent, abandoning their heavy equipment by the end of the month.[42] On June 10th, Italy invaded, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom;[42] twelve days later France surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones,[43] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime. In early July, the British attacked the French fleet in Algeria to prevent their seizure by Germany.[44]
German bombers during the Battle of Britain
German bombers during the Battle of Britain
With France neutralized, Germany began an air superiority campaign over Britain to prepare for an invasion[45] and enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic.[46] Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in early September. Japan increased its blockade of China in September by seizing several bases in the northern part of the now-isolated French Indochina.[47]
Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow Cash and carry purchases by the Allies.[48] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of United States Navy was significantly increased and after the Japanese incursion into Indochina, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan.[49] In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases.[50]
At the end of September the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Italy and Germany formalized the Axis Powers. The pact stipulated, with the exception of the Soviet Union, any country not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.[51] The Soviet Union expressed interest in joining the Tripartite Pact, sending a modified draft to Germany in November and offering a very German-favourable economic deal;[52] while Germany remained silent on the former, they accepted the latter.[53] Regardless of the pact, the United States continued to support the United Kingdom and China by introducing the Lend-Lease policy[54] and creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic Ocean where the United States Navy protected British convoys.[55]
In October, Italy invaded Greece but within days were repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred.[56] Shortly after this, in Africa, Commonwealth forces launched offensives against Egypt and Italian East Africa. By early 1941, with Italian forces having been pushed back into Libya by the Commonwealth, Churchill ordered a dispatch of troops from Africa to bolster the Greeks. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission via carrier attack at Taranto, and several more warships neutralized at Cape Matapan.[57]
German paratroopers invading Crete
German paratroopers invading Crete
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February and by the end of March they had launched an offensive against the diminished Commonwealth forces. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions. In early April the Germans similarly intervened in the Balkans, invading Greece and Yugoslavia; here too they made rapid progress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May.[58]
The Allies did have some successes during this time though. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed a coup in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,[59] then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.[60] In the Atlantic, the British scored a much needed public morale boost by sinking the German flagship Bismarck.[61] Perhaps most importantly, the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and on May 11, 1941, Hitler called off the bombing campaign over Britain.[62]
In Asia, in spite of several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.[63] Mounting tensions between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.[64]
With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia the two powers signed a neutrality agreement in April, 1941.[65] By contrast the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, amassing forces on the Soviet border, particularly in Finland and Romania.[66]
The war becomes global
German soldiers in the Soviet Union, 1941
German soldiers in the Soviet Union, 1941
In late June, Germany, along with other European Axis members and Finland, invaded the Soviet Union. They made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting large numbers of casualties, and by the start of December had almost reached Moscow, with only the besieged cities of Leningrad and Sevastopol behind their front-lines left unconquered.[67] With the onset of a fierce Soviet winter though, the Axis offensive was ground to a halt[68] and the Soviets launched a counter-offensive using reserve troops brought up from the border near Japanese Manchukuo.[69]
Following the German attack on the Soviets, the United Kingdom began to regroup. In July, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany[70] and shortly after jointly invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oilfields.[71] In August, the United Kingdom and United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter, a vision for a post-war world which included "the right of all peoples to choose their form of government".[72] In November, Commonwealth forces launched a counter-offensive in the desert, reclaiming all gains the Germans and Italians had made.[73]
Japan, hoping to utilize Germany's control over the Netherlands, made several demands, including a steady supply of oil, from the Dutch East Indies; these talks, however, broke down in June.[74] In July, Japan seized military control of southern Indochina since it would not only put them in a better position to coerce the Dutch East Indies into yielding, but it would also be a blow against China; should war be necessary, it also improved their strategic position against the Americans and British.[75] The United States, United Kingdom and other western governments responded to Japan's incursion by freezing all Japanese assets[76] and the United States, which supplied 80% of Japan's oil, further placed an oil embargo against Japan.[77] With the unexpected embargo, Japan was essentially forced to choose between withdrawing from their aggression in Asia, or seizing the oil they needed directly; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many of them considered the oil embargo as an unspoken declaration of war.[78]
The Imperial General Headquarters thus planned to create a large perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific in order to facilitate a defensive war while exploiting the resources of Southeast Asia; to prevent intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralize the United States Pacific Fleet on the outset.[79] On December 7th Japan attacked British, Dutch and American holdings with near simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the American naval base of Pearl Harbor.[80]
These attacks prompted the United States, United Kingdom, China, and other Western Allies to declare war on Japan. Italy, Germany, and the other members of the Tripartite Pact responded by declaring war on the United States. In January, the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China, along with twenty-two smaller or exiled governments, issued the Declaration by United Nations, affirming the Atlantic Charter[81] and formalizing their alliance against the Axis Powers. The Soviet Union did not adhere fully to the declaration though, as they maintained their neutrality agreement with Japan[82] and exempted themselves from the principle of self-determination.[72]
British soldiers surrendering from the Battle of Singapore
British soldiers surrendering from the Battle of Singapore
The Axis Powers, however, were able to continue their offensives. Japan had almost fully conquered Southeast Asia with minimal losses by the end of April, 1942, chasing the Allies out of Burma and taking large numbers of prisoners in the Philippines, Malaya, Dutch East Indies and Singapore.[83] They further bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia and sunk significant Allied warships not only at Pearl Harbor, but also in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean.[84] The only real successes against Japan were a repulsion of their renewed attack on Changsha in early January, 1942,[85] and a psychological strike from a bombing raid on Japan's capital Tokyo in April.[86]
Germany was able to regain the initiative as well. Exploiting American inexperience with submarine warfare, the German Navy sunk significant resources near the American Atlantic coast.[87] In the desert, they launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February.[88] In the Soviet Union, the Soviet's winter counter-offensive had ended by March.[89] In both the desert and the Soviet Union, there followed a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.[90][91]
The tide turns
American aircraft attacking a Japanese cruiser at Midway
American aircraft attacking a Japanese cruiser at Midway
In early May, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby via amphibious assault and thus sever the line of communications between the United States and Australia. The Allies, however, intercepted and turned back Japanese naval forces, preventing the invasion.[92] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier bombing on Tokyo, was to seize the Midway Atoll as this would seal a gap in their perimeter defenses, provide a forward base for further operations, and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands.[93] In early June, Japan put their operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the Japanese plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory over the Imperial Japanese Navy.[94] With their capacity for amphibious assault greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on an overland campaign on the Territory of Papua in another attempt to capture Port Moresby.[95] For the Americans, they planned their next move against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily against the island of Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the primary Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[96] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September the battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island.[97] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in a battle of attrition. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[98]
In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May of 1943.[99] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved dubious results.[100]
Soviet soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad
Soviet soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad
On Germany's eastern front, the Axis defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov[101] and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June, 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad which was in the path of the advancing German armies and by mid-November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad[102] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[103] By early February, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; their troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position prior to their summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front-line around the Russian city of Kursk.[104]
In the west, concerns that the Japanese might utilize bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May, 1942.[105] This success was off set soon after by an Axis offensive in Libya which pushed the Allies back into Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[106] On the Continent, Allied commandos had conducted a series of increasingly ambitious raids on strategic targets, culminating in a disastrous amphibious raid on the German held port of Dieppe.[107] In August the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to get desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[108] A few months later the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[109] This was followed up shortly after by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa which resulted in the region joining the Allies.[110] Hitler responded to the defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France,[110] though the Vichy Admiralty managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces.[111] The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies by May, 1943.[112]
Allies gain momentum
A British mortar detachment fighting in Burma
A British mortar detachment fighting in Burma
In mainland Asia, the Japanese launched two major offensives. The first, started in March, 1944, was against British positions in Assam, India[113] and soon led to Japanese forces besieging Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima;[114] by May however, other Japanese forces were being besieged in Myitkyina by Chinese forces which had invaded Northern Burma in late 1943.[115] The second was in China, with the goal of destroying China's main fighting forces, securing railways between Japanese-held territory, and capturing Allied airfields.[116] By June the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.[117]
Following the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May, 1943, American forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians,[118] and soon after began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[119] By the end of March, 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralized another major Japanese base in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies then launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[120]
The starting date of the war is generally held to be September 1939 with the German invasion of Poland and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by the United Kingdom, France and the British Dominions;[7][8] some sources use other starting points, including the Mukden Incident, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, and the Attack on Pearl Harbor. The Allies were victorious, and, as a result, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as the world's leading superpowers. This set the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. The self determination spawned by the war accelerated decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Western Europe itself began moving toward integration.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Background
* 2 Chronology
* 3 Course of the war
o 3.1 War breaks out
o 3.2 Axis advances
o 3.3 The war becomes global
o 3.4 The tide turns
o 3.5 Allies gain momentum
o 3.6 Allies close in
o 3.7 Axis collapse, Allied victory
* 4 Aftermath
* 5 Impact of the war
o 5.1 Casualties and war crimes
o 5.2 Concentration camps and slave work
o 5.3 Home fronts and production
o 5.4 War time occupation
o 5.5 Advances in technology and warfare
* 6 Historical era
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 External links
Background
Main article: Causes of World War II
In the aftermath of World War I, the defeated German Empire signed the Treaty of Versailles.[9] This caused Germany to lose a significant portion of its territory, prohibited the annexation of other states, limited the size of German armed forces and imposed massive reparations. Russia's Civil war led to the creation of the Soviet Union which soon was under the control of Joseph Stalin. In Italy, Benito Mussolini seized power as a fascist dictator promising to create a "New Roman Empire."[10] The ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against rebelling warlords in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China[11] as the first step of its right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as justification to invade Manchuria; the two nations then fought several small conflicts until the Tanggu Truce in 1933.
German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally
German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally
National Socialist Adolf Hitler became the leader of Germany in 1933 and soon began a massive rearming campaign.[12] This worried France and the United Kingdom, who had lost much in the previous war, as well as Italy, which saw its territorial ambitions threatened by those of Germany.[13] To secure its alliance, the French allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired to conquer. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Saarland was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, speeding up remilitarization and introducing conscription. Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front. The Soviet Union, concerned due to Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, concluded a treaty of mutual assistance with France.
Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, rendering it essentially toothless[14][15] and in June of 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany easing prior restrictions. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August.[16] In October, Italy invaded Ethiopia, with Germany the only major European nation supporting her invasion. Italy then revoked objections to Germany's goal of making Austria a satellite state.[17]
In direct violation of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in March of 1936. He received little response from other European powers.[18] When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July, Hitler and Mussolini supported fascist Generalísimo Francisco Franco's nationalist forces in his civil war against the Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the conflict to test new weapons and methods of warfare[19] and the nationalists would prove victorious in early 1939.
With tensions mounting, efforts to strengthen or consolidate power were made. In October, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis and a month later Germany and Japan, each believing communism and the Soviet Union in particular to be a threat, signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In China, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.[20]
Chronology
Other dates for the beginning of war include the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931,[21][22] the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937,[23][24] or one of several other events. Other sources follow A. J. P. Taylor, who holds that there was a simultaneous Sino-Japanese War in East Asia, and a Second European War in Europe and her colonies, but they did not become a World War until they merged in 1941; at which point the war continued until 1945. This article uses the conventional dating.[25]
The end of the War also has several dates; some sources end it from the armistice of August 14, 1945, rather than the formal surrender; in some European histories, it ended on V-E Day; the Japanese Treaty was not signed until 1951; the Six Power treaties were signed, formally ending the War in Europe, in 1992.
Course of the war
See also: Timeline of World War II
War breaks out
Japanese forces during the Battle of Wuhan
Japanese forces during the Battle of Wuhan
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In mid-1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japan began a full invasion of China. The Soviets quickly lent support to China, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany. Starting at Shanghai, the Japanese pushed Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanjing in December. In June of 1938 Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; though this bought time to prepare their defenses at Wuhan, the city was still taken by October.[26] During this time, Japanese and Soviet forces engaged in a minor skirmish at Lake Khasan; in May of 1939, they became involved in a more serious border war.[27]
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming bolder. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers.[28] Encouraged, Hitler began making claims on the Sudetenland; France and Britain conceded these for a promise of no further territorial demands.[29] Germany soon reneged, and in March 1939 fully occupied Czechoslovakia.
Soviet and German officers in Poland
Soviet and German officers in Poland
Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on Danzig, France and Britain guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece.[30] The Soviet Union also attempted to ally with France and Britain, but was rebuffed due to western suspicions about Soviet motives and capability.[31] Shortly after the Franco-British pledges to Poland, Germany and Italy formalized their own alliance with the Pact of Steel; following this, in a move that shocked all other major powers, Germany and the Soviet Union concluded a non-aggression pact, including a secret agreement to split Poland and eastern Europe between them.[32]
By the start of September 1939, the Soviets had routed Japanese forces[33] and the Germans invaded Poland. France, Britain, and the countries of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany but lent little support other than a small French attack into the Saarland.[34] In mid-September, after signing an armistice with Japan, the Soviets launched their own invasion of Poland.[35] By early October, Poland had been divided between Germany and the Soviet Union. During the battle in Poland, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by early October.[36]
Axis advances
British and French soldiers taken prisoner in Northern France
British and French soldiers taken prisoner in Northern France
Following the invasion of Poland, the Soviets began moving troops into the Baltic region. Finnish resistance in late November led to a four-month war, ending with Finnish concessions.[37] France and the United Kingdom, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans[38] responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting its expulsion from the League of Nations.[38] Though China had the authority to veto such an action, it was unwilling to alienate itself from either the Western powers or the Soviet Union and instead abstained.[38] The Soviet Union was displeased by this course of action and as a result suspended all military aid to China.[38] By mid-1940, the Soviet Union's occupation of the Baltics was completed with the installation of pro-Soviet puppet governments.[39]
In Western Europe, British troops deployed to the Continent, but neither Germany nor the Allies launched direct attacks on the other. In April, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure shipments of iron-ore from Sweden which the allies would try to disrupt. Denmark immediately capitulated, and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.[40] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain by Winston Churchill on May 10, 1940.[41]
On that same day, Germany invaded France and the Low Countries. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few weeks. British troops were forced to evacuate the continent, abandoning their heavy equipment by the end of the month.[42] On June 10th, Italy invaded, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom;[42] twelve days later France surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones,[43] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime. In early July, the British attacked the French fleet in Algeria to prevent their seizure by Germany.[44]
German bombers during the Battle of Britain
German bombers during the Battle of Britain
With France neutralized, Germany began an air superiority campaign over Britain to prepare for an invasion[45] and enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic.[46] Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in early September. Japan increased its blockade of China in September by seizing several bases in the northern part of the now-isolated French Indochina.[47]
Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow Cash and carry purchases by the Allies.[48] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of United States Navy was significantly increased and after the Japanese incursion into Indochina, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan.[49] In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases.[50]
At the end of September the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Italy and Germany formalized the Axis Powers. The pact stipulated, with the exception of the Soviet Union, any country not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.[51] The Soviet Union expressed interest in joining the Tripartite Pact, sending a modified draft to Germany in November and offering a very German-favourable economic deal;[52] while Germany remained silent on the former, they accepted the latter.[53] Regardless of the pact, the United States continued to support the United Kingdom and China by introducing the Lend-Lease policy[54] and creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic Ocean where the United States Navy protected British convoys.[55]
In October, Italy invaded Greece but within days were repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred.[56] Shortly after this, in Africa, Commonwealth forces launched offensives against Egypt and Italian East Africa. By early 1941, with Italian forces having been pushed back into Libya by the Commonwealth, Churchill ordered a dispatch of troops from Africa to bolster the Greeks. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission via carrier attack at Taranto, and several more warships neutralized at Cape Matapan.[57]
German paratroopers invading Crete
German paratroopers invading Crete
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February and by the end of March they had launched an offensive against the diminished Commonwealth forces. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions. In early April the Germans similarly intervened in the Balkans, invading Greece and Yugoslavia; here too they made rapid progress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May.[58]
The Allies did have some successes during this time though. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed a coup in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,[59] then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.[60] In the Atlantic, the British scored a much needed public morale boost by sinking the German flagship Bismarck.[61] Perhaps most importantly, the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and on May 11, 1941, Hitler called off the bombing campaign over Britain.[62]
In Asia, in spite of several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.[63] Mounting tensions between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.[64]
With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia the two powers signed a neutrality agreement in April, 1941.[65] By contrast the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, amassing forces on the Soviet border, particularly in Finland and Romania.[66]
The war becomes global
German soldiers in the Soviet Union, 1941
German soldiers in the Soviet Union, 1941
In late June, Germany, along with other European Axis members and Finland, invaded the Soviet Union. They made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting large numbers of casualties, and by the start of December had almost reached Moscow, with only the besieged cities of Leningrad and Sevastopol behind their front-lines left unconquered.[67] With the onset of a fierce Soviet winter though, the Axis offensive was ground to a halt[68] and the Soviets launched a counter-offensive using reserve troops brought up from the border near Japanese Manchukuo.[69]
Following the German attack on the Soviets, the United Kingdom began to regroup. In July, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany[70] and shortly after jointly invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oilfields.[71] In August, the United Kingdom and United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter, a vision for a post-war world which included "the right of all peoples to choose their form of government".[72] In November, Commonwealth forces launched a counter-offensive in the desert, reclaiming all gains the Germans and Italians had made.[73]
Japan, hoping to utilize Germany's control over the Netherlands, made several demands, including a steady supply of oil, from the Dutch East Indies; these talks, however, broke down in June.[74] In July, Japan seized military control of southern Indochina since it would not only put them in a better position to coerce the Dutch East Indies into yielding, but it would also be a blow against China; should war be necessary, it also improved their strategic position against the Americans and British.[75] The United States, United Kingdom and other western governments responded to Japan's incursion by freezing all Japanese assets[76] and the United States, which supplied 80% of Japan's oil, further placed an oil embargo against Japan.[77] With the unexpected embargo, Japan was essentially forced to choose between withdrawing from their aggression in Asia, or seizing the oil they needed directly; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many of them considered the oil embargo as an unspoken declaration of war.[78]
The Imperial General Headquarters thus planned to create a large perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific in order to facilitate a defensive war while exploiting the resources of Southeast Asia; to prevent intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralize the United States Pacific Fleet on the outset.[79] On December 7th Japan attacked British, Dutch and American holdings with near simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the American naval base of Pearl Harbor.[80]
These attacks prompted the United States, United Kingdom, China, and other Western Allies to declare war on Japan. Italy, Germany, and the other members of the Tripartite Pact responded by declaring war on the United States. In January, the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China, along with twenty-two smaller or exiled governments, issued the Declaration by United Nations, affirming the Atlantic Charter[81] and formalizing their alliance against the Axis Powers. The Soviet Union did not adhere fully to the declaration though, as they maintained their neutrality agreement with Japan[82] and exempted themselves from the principle of self-determination.[72]
British soldiers surrendering from the Battle of Singapore
British soldiers surrendering from the Battle of Singapore
The Axis Powers, however, were able to continue their offensives. Japan had almost fully conquered Southeast Asia with minimal losses by the end of April, 1942, chasing the Allies out of Burma and taking large numbers of prisoners in the Philippines, Malaya, Dutch East Indies and Singapore.[83] They further bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia and sunk significant Allied warships not only at Pearl Harbor, but also in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean.[84] The only real successes against Japan were a repulsion of their renewed attack on Changsha in early January, 1942,[85] and a psychological strike from a bombing raid on Japan's capital Tokyo in April.[86]
Germany was able to regain the initiative as well. Exploiting American inexperience with submarine warfare, the German Navy sunk significant resources near the American Atlantic coast.[87] In the desert, they launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February.[88] In the Soviet Union, the Soviet's winter counter-offensive had ended by March.[89] In both the desert and the Soviet Union, there followed a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.[90][91]
The tide turns
American aircraft attacking a Japanese cruiser at Midway
American aircraft attacking a Japanese cruiser at Midway
In early May, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby via amphibious assault and thus sever the line of communications between the United States and Australia. The Allies, however, intercepted and turned back Japanese naval forces, preventing the invasion.[92] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier bombing on Tokyo, was to seize the Midway Atoll as this would seal a gap in their perimeter defenses, provide a forward base for further operations, and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands.[93] In early June, Japan put their operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the Japanese plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory over the Imperial Japanese Navy.[94] With their capacity for amphibious assault greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on an overland campaign on the Territory of Papua in another attempt to capture Port Moresby.[95] For the Americans, they planned their next move against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily against the island of Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the primary Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[96] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September the battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island.[97] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in a battle of attrition. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[98]
In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May of 1943.[99] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved dubious results.[100]
Soviet soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad
Soviet soldiers in the Battle of Stalingrad
On Germany's eastern front, the Axis defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov[101] and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June, 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad which was in the path of the advancing German armies and by mid-November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad[102] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[103] By early February, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; their troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position prior to their summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front-line around the Russian city of Kursk.[104]
In the west, concerns that the Japanese might utilize bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May, 1942.[105] This success was off set soon after by an Axis offensive in Libya which pushed the Allies back into Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[106] On the Continent, Allied commandos had conducted a series of increasingly ambitious raids on strategic targets, culminating in a disastrous amphibious raid on the German held port of Dieppe.[107] In August the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to get desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[108] A few months later the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[109] This was followed up shortly after by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa which resulted in the region joining the Allies.[110] Hitler responded to the defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France,[110] though the Vichy Admiralty managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces.[111] The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies by May, 1943.[112]
Allies gain momentum
A British mortar detachment fighting in Burma
A British mortar detachment fighting in Burma
In mainland Asia, the Japanese launched two major offensives. The first, started in March, 1944, was against British positions in Assam, India[113] and soon led to Japanese forces besieging Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima;[114] by May however, other Japanese forces were being besieged in Myitkyina by Chinese forces which had invaded Northern Burma in late 1943.[115] The second was in China, with the goal of destroying China's main fighting forces, securing railways between Japanese-held territory, and capturing Allied airfields.[116] By June the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.[117]
Following the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May, 1943, American forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians,[118] and soon after began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[119] By the end of March, 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralized another major Japanese base in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies then launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[120]
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Legacy Member
In the Mediterranean, Allied forces launched an invasion of Sicily in early July, 1943. The attack on Italian soil, compounded with previous failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.[121] The Allies soon followed up with an invasion of the Italian mainland in early September, following an Italian armistice with the Allies.[122] When this armistice was made public on September 8th, Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,[123] and setting up a series of defensive lines.[124] On September 12th, German special forces further rescued Mussolini who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy.[125] The Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[126] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks against the line at Monte Cassino and attempted to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By late May both of these offensives had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on June 4th Rome was captured.[127]
A Soviet tank during the Battle of Kursk
A Soviet tank during the Battle of Kursk
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, German submarine losses were so high that the naval campaign was temporarily called to a halt as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective.[128]
In the Soviet Union, the Germans spent the spring and early summer of 1943 making preparations for a large offensive in the region of Kursk; the Soviets anticipated such an action though and spent their time fortifying the area.[129] On July 4th, the Germans launched their attack, though only about a week later Hitler cancelled the operation.[130] The Soviets were then able to mount a massive counter-offensive and, by June 1944, had largely expelled Axis forces from the Soviet Union and made incursions into Romania.[131]
In November, 1943, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. At the former conference, the post-war return of Japanese territory was determined and in the latter, it was agreed that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.
Allies close in
Assault landing at Omaha Beach in Normandy
Assault landing at Omaha Beach in Normandy
In June, 1944, the Western Allies invaded northern France and in August, after reassigning several Allied divisions in Italy, then invaded southern France;[132] by 25 August the Allies had liberated Paris.[133] During the latter part of the year, the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe, and in Italy ran into the last major defensive line.
On the Germans eastern front, the Soviets launched a series of powerful offensives. Starting in early June the Soviets launched massive assaults against Finland, Belarus, Ukraine and Eastern Poland, Romania, and Hungary.[134] These operations resulted in great successes, with Bulgaria, Romania and Finland signing armistices with the Soviet Union,[135] and prompted Polish resistance forces to initiate several uprisings in Poland, though the largest of these, in Warsaw, was conducted without Soviet assistance and put down by German forces.[136]
By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[137] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[138] Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[139] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by the middle of December.[140]
In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In the middle of June, 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, scoring a decisive victory against Japanese forces in the Philippine Sea within a few days. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory against the Japanese in the Leyte Gulf.[141]
Axis collapse, Allied victory
American and Soviet troops meet east of the Elbe River
American and Soviet troops meet east of the Elbe River
On December 16, 1944 German forces counter-attacked in the Ardennes against the Western Allies. It took six weeks for the Allies to repulse the attack. The Soviets attacked through Hungary, while the Germans abandoned Greece, Albania and were driven out of southern Yugoslavia by partisans.[142] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[143]
On February 4, U.S., British, and Soviet leaders met in Yalta. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany,[144] and when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[145]
In February, Western Allied forces entered Germany and closed to the Rhine river, while the Soviets invaded Pomerania and Silesia. In March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling a large number of German troops, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while in late April Soviet forces stormed Berlin; the two forces linked up on Elbe river on April 25.
Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On April 12, U.S. President Roosevelt died; he was succeeded by Harry Truman. Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on April 28th[146] and two days later Hitler committed suicide, succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.[147]
German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29th and Germany itself surrendered on May 7.[148]
Nuclear explosion at Hiroshima
Nuclear explosion at Hiroshima
In the Pacific theater, American forces advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of 1944. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and Mindanao in March.[149] British and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma from October to March, then the British pushed on to Rangoon by May 3.[150] American forces also moved toward Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by June.[151] American bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off Japanese imports.[152]
On July 11, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[153] and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[154] During this conference the United Kingdom held its general election and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.
When Japan continued to reject the Potsdam terms, the United States then dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. Between the two bombs, the Soviets invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, as agreed at Yalta. On August 15, 1945 Japan surrendered, ending the war.[148]
Aftermath
Main article: Aftermath of World War II
In an effort to maintain international peace,[155] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October, 1945.[156]
Regardless of this though, the alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over,[157] and the two powers each quickly established their own spheres of influence.[158] In Europe, the continent was essentially divided between Western and Soviet spheres by the so-called Iron Curtain which ran through and partitioned Allied occupied Germany and occupied Austria. In Asia, the United States occupied Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; the former Japanese governed Korea was divided and occupied between the two powers. Mounting tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union soon evolved into the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact military alliances and the start of the Cold War between them.[159]
In many parts of the world, conflict picked up again within a short time of World War II ending. In China, nationalist and communist forces quickly resumed their civil war. Communist forces were eventually victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland while nationalist forces ended up retreating to the reclaimed island of Taiwan. In Greece, civil war broke out between Anglo-American supported royalist forces and communist forces, with the royalist forces victorious. Soon after these conflicts ended, war broke out in Korea between South Korea, which was backed by the western powers, and North Korea, which was backed by the Soviet Union and China; the war resulted in essentially a stalemate and ceasefire.
Following the end of the war, a rapid period of decolonization also took place within the holdings of the various European colonial powers. These primarily occurred due to shifts in ideology, the economic exhaustion from the war and increased demand by indigenous people for self-determination. For the most part, these transitions happened relatively peacefully, though notable exceptions occurred in countries such as Indochina, Madagascar, Indonesia and Algeria.[160] In many regions, divisions, usually for ethnic or religious reasons, occurred following European withdrawal; this was seen prominently in the Mandate of Palestine, leading to the creation of Israel and Palestine, and in India, resulting in the creation of the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.
Economic recovery following the war was varied in differing parts of the world, though in general it was quite positive. In Europe, West Germany recovered quickly and doubled production from its pre-war levels by the 1950s.[161] Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition,[162] but by 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.[163] The United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin after the war,[164] and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.[165] France rebounded quite quickly, and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernization.[166] The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[167] In Asia, Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, and led to Japan becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[168] China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially a bankrupt nation.[169] By 1953 economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels.[170] This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was briefly interrupted by the disastrous Great Leap Forward economic experiment. At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the worlds industrial output; by the 1970s though, this dominance had lessened significantly.[171]
Impact of the war
Casualties and war crimes
Main articles: World War II casualties and War crimes during World War II
Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, but most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians.[172][173][174] Many civilians died because of disease, starvation, massacres, genocide. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II casualties.[175] Of the total deaths in World War II, approximately 85% were on the Allied side (mostly Soviet and Chinese) and 15% on the Axis side. One estimate is that 12 million civilians died in Holocaust camps,[176] 1.5 million by bombs, 7 million in Europe from other causes, and 7.5 million in China from other causes.[177] Figures on the amount of total casualties vary to a wide extent because the majority of deaths were not documented.
Many of these deaths were a result of genocidal actions committed in Axis-occupied territories and other war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces. Widely considered the most notorious of these acts by German forces is The Holocaust, the systematic purging of Jews in Europe which resulted in the murder of roughly six million Jewish people. In addition to this, the Nazis also targeted other groups, including Roma, Slavs and homosexuals, exterminating roughly five million additional people.[178] For Japan, the most well-known is probably the Nanking Massacre, in which several hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.[179] Japanese military murdered from nearly 3 million to over 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese.[180] According to Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2.7 million died during the Sankō Sakusen implemented in Heipei and Shantung by General Yasuji Okamura.
Limited Axis usage of biological and chemical weapons is also known. The Italians used mustard gas during their conquest of Abyssinia,[181] while the Japanese Imperial Army used a variety of such weapons during their invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[182] and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[183] Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians[184] and, in some cases, on prisoners.[185]
While many of the Axis's acts were brought to trial in the worlds first international tribunals,[186] incidents caused by the Allies were not. Examples of such actions include population transfer in the Soviet Union, ethnic internment in the United States, the Soviet massacre of Polish citizens and the controversial mass-bombing of civilian areas in enemy territory, most notably at Dresden.[187]
Large numbers of deaths can also be attributed, if even partially, indirectly to the war, such as the Bengal famine of 1943.
Concentration camps and slave work
The Holocaust was the killing of approximately six million European Jews as well as two million ethnic Poles and four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Roma) as part of a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist government in Germany led by Adolf Hitler. About 12 million forced laborers, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy inside the Nazi Germany.[188]
Victims of the Holocaust
Victims of the Holocaust
In addition to the Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet Gulag, or labor camps, led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POW) and even Soviet citizens themselves who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.[189] Sixty percent of Soviet POWs died during the war.[190] Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57% died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million.[191] The survivors on their return to the USSR were treated as traitors (see Order No. 270).[192]
Body disposal at Unit 731, the infamous Japanese biological warfare research unit.
Body disposal at Unit 731, the infamous Japanese biological warfare research unit.
Japanese POW camps also had high death rates, many were used as labour camps. According to the findings of the Tokyo tribunal, the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1% (American POWs died at a rate of 37%),[193] seven times that of POW's under the Germans and Italians[194] The death rate of Chinese was much larger as, according to the directive ratified on 5 August 1937 by Hirohito, the constraints of international law were removed on those prisoners.[195] Thus, if 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from Netherlands and 14,473 from USA were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.[196]
According to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by the Kōa-in for slave labor in Manchukuo and north China.[197] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.[198]
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945
On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, and some emigrants from Hawaii who fled after the bombing of Pearl Harbor for the duration of the war. 150,000 Japanese-Americans were interned by the U.S. and Canadian governments, as well as nearly 11,000 German and Italian residents of the U.S.
Allied use of slave labor occurred mainly in the east, such as in Poland,[199] but more than a million was also put to work in the west. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or maimed each month in mine-clearing accidents.[200]
Home fronts and production
Main articles: military production during World War II and Home front during World War II
Allied to Axis GDP ratio.
Allied to Axis GDP ratio.
In Europe, prior to the start of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30% larger population and a 30% higher gross domestic product then the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more then a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.[201] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only a 89% higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38% higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.[201]
Though the Allies economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.[202]
While the Allies ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to utilize women in the labour force,[203][204] Allied strategic bombing,[205][206] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[207] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned on fighting a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so.[208][209] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[210] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[211] while Japan pressed more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.[212]
War time occupation
Main articles: Collaboration during World War II and Resistance during World War II
In Europe, occupation came under two very different forms. In western, northern and central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[213] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40% of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40% of total German income as the war went on.[214]
In the east, the much hoped for bounties of lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[215] Unlike in the west, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions.[216] Although resistance groups did form in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the east[217] or the west[218] until late 1943.
In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonized peoples.[219] Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in many territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinions against them within weeks.[220] During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4 million barrels of oil left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels, 76% of its 1940 output rate.[220]
Advances in technology and warfare
Main article: Technology during World War II
During the war, aircraft continued their roles of reconnaissance, fighters, bombers and ground-support from World War I, though each area was advanced considerably. Two important additional roles for aircraft were those of the airlift, the capability to quickly move high-priority supplies, equipment and personnel, albeit in limited quantities;[221] and of strategic bombing, the targeted use bombs against civilian areas in the hopes of hampering enemy industry and morale.[222] Anti-aircraft weaponry also continued to advance, including key defences such as radar and greatly improved anti-aircraft artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. Jet aircraft saw their first limited operational use during World War II, and though their late introduction and limited numbers meant that they had no real impact during the war itself, the few which saw active service pioneered a mass-shift to their usage following the war.[223]
At sea, while advances were made in almost all aspects of naval warfare, the two primary areas of development were focused around aircraft carriers and submarines. Although at the start of the war aeronautical warfare had relatively little success,[224] actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea and the Coral Sea soon established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.[225][226] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius dramatically and helping to seal the Mid-Atlantic gap.[227] Beyond their increased effectiveness, carriers were also more economical then battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft[228] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[229] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the first World War[230] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and Wolf pack tactics.[231] Gradually, continually improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.
Overland warfare changed drastically from the static front lines experienced during World War I to become much more fluid and mobile. An important change was the concept of combined arms warfare, wherein tight coordination was sought between the various elements of military forces; the tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry-support in the first World War, had evolved into the primary weapon of these forces during the second.[232] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced in all areas then it had been during World War I,[233] and advances continued throughout the war in increasing speed, armour and fire-power. At the start of the war, most armies considered the tank to be the best weapon against itself, and developed special purpose tanks to that effect.[234] This line of thinking was all but negated by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank armaments against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-to-tank combat; the latter factor, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[232] Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry carried anti-tank weaponry, and other tanks were utilized.[234] Even with the large-scale mechanization of the various armies, the infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[235] and throughout the war, most infantry equipment was similar to that utilized in World War I.[236] Some of the primary advances though, were the widespread incorporation of readily portable machine guns, a most notable example being the German MG42, and various submachine guns which were well suited to close quarters combat in urban and jungle settings.[236] The assault rifle, a late war development which incorporated many of the best features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the post-war standard infantry weapon for nearly all armed forces.
In terms of communications, most of the major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security presented by utilizing large codebooks for cryptography with the creation of various ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.[237] SIGINT (signals intelligence) was the countering process of decryption, with the notable examples being the British ULTRA and the Allied breaking of Japanese naval codes. Another important aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception operations, which the Allies successfully used on several occasions to great effect, such as operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard, which diverted German attention and forces away from the Allied invasions of Sicily and Normandy respectively.
Other important technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the worlds first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[/SIZE]
A Soviet tank during the Battle of Kursk
A Soviet tank during the Battle of Kursk
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, German submarine losses were so high that the naval campaign was temporarily called to a halt as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective.[128]
In the Soviet Union, the Germans spent the spring and early summer of 1943 making preparations for a large offensive in the region of Kursk; the Soviets anticipated such an action though and spent their time fortifying the area.[129] On July 4th, the Germans launched their attack, though only about a week later Hitler cancelled the operation.[130] The Soviets were then able to mount a massive counter-offensive and, by June 1944, had largely expelled Axis forces from the Soviet Union and made incursions into Romania.[131]
In November, 1943, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. At the former conference, the post-war return of Japanese territory was determined and in the latter, it was agreed that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.
Allies close in
Assault landing at Omaha Beach in Normandy
Assault landing at Omaha Beach in Normandy
In June, 1944, the Western Allies invaded northern France and in August, after reassigning several Allied divisions in Italy, then invaded southern France;[132] by 25 August the Allies had liberated Paris.[133] During the latter part of the year, the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe, and in Italy ran into the last major defensive line.
On the Germans eastern front, the Soviets launched a series of powerful offensives. Starting in early June the Soviets launched massive assaults against Finland, Belarus, Ukraine and Eastern Poland, Romania, and Hungary.[134] These operations resulted in great successes, with Bulgaria, Romania and Finland signing armistices with the Soviet Union,[135] and prompted Polish resistance forces to initiate several uprisings in Poland, though the largest of these, in Warsaw, was conducted without Soviet assistance and put down by German forces.[136]
By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[137] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[138] Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[139] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by the middle of December.[140]
In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In the middle of June, 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, scoring a decisive victory against Japanese forces in the Philippine Sea within a few days. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory against the Japanese in the Leyte Gulf.[141]
Axis collapse, Allied victory
American and Soviet troops meet east of the Elbe River
American and Soviet troops meet east of the Elbe River
On December 16, 1944 German forces counter-attacked in the Ardennes against the Western Allies. It took six weeks for the Allies to repulse the attack. The Soviets attacked through Hungary, while the Germans abandoned Greece, Albania and were driven out of southern Yugoslavia by partisans.[142] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[143]
On February 4, U.S., British, and Soviet leaders met in Yalta. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany,[144] and when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[145]
In February, Western Allied forces entered Germany and closed to the Rhine river, while the Soviets invaded Pomerania and Silesia. In March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling a large number of German troops, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while in late April Soviet forces stormed Berlin; the two forces linked up on Elbe river on April 25.
Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On April 12, U.S. President Roosevelt died; he was succeeded by Harry Truman. Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on April 28th[146] and two days later Hitler committed suicide, succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.[147]
German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29th and Germany itself surrendered on May 7.[148]
Nuclear explosion at Hiroshima
Nuclear explosion at Hiroshima
In the Pacific theater, American forces advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of 1944. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and Mindanao in March.[149] British and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma from October to March, then the British pushed on to Rangoon by May 3.[150] American forces also moved toward Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by June.[151] American bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off Japanese imports.[152]
On July 11, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[153] and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[154] During this conference the United Kingdom held its general election and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.
When Japan continued to reject the Potsdam terms, the United States then dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. Between the two bombs, the Soviets invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, as agreed at Yalta. On August 15, 1945 Japan surrendered, ending the war.[148]
Aftermath
Main article: Aftermath of World War II
In an effort to maintain international peace,[155] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October, 1945.[156]
Regardless of this though, the alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over,[157] and the two powers each quickly established their own spheres of influence.[158] In Europe, the continent was essentially divided between Western and Soviet spheres by the so-called Iron Curtain which ran through and partitioned Allied occupied Germany and occupied Austria. In Asia, the United States occupied Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; the former Japanese governed Korea was divided and occupied between the two powers. Mounting tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union soon evolved into the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact military alliances and the start of the Cold War between them.[159]
In many parts of the world, conflict picked up again within a short time of World War II ending. In China, nationalist and communist forces quickly resumed their civil war. Communist forces were eventually victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland while nationalist forces ended up retreating to the reclaimed island of Taiwan. In Greece, civil war broke out between Anglo-American supported royalist forces and communist forces, with the royalist forces victorious. Soon after these conflicts ended, war broke out in Korea between South Korea, which was backed by the western powers, and North Korea, which was backed by the Soviet Union and China; the war resulted in essentially a stalemate and ceasefire.
Following the end of the war, a rapid period of decolonization also took place within the holdings of the various European colonial powers. These primarily occurred due to shifts in ideology, the economic exhaustion from the war and increased demand by indigenous people for self-determination. For the most part, these transitions happened relatively peacefully, though notable exceptions occurred in countries such as Indochina, Madagascar, Indonesia and Algeria.[160] In many regions, divisions, usually for ethnic or religious reasons, occurred following European withdrawal; this was seen prominently in the Mandate of Palestine, leading to the creation of Israel and Palestine, and in India, resulting in the creation of the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.
Economic recovery following the war was varied in differing parts of the world, though in general it was quite positive. In Europe, West Germany recovered quickly and doubled production from its pre-war levels by the 1950s.[161] Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition,[162] but by 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.[163] The United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin after the war,[164] and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.[165] France rebounded quite quickly, and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernization.[166] The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[167] In Asia, Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, and led to Japan becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[168] China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially a bankrupt nation.[169] By 1953 economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels.[170] This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was briefly interrupted by the disastrous Great Leap Forward economic experiment. At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the worlds industrial output; by the 1970s though, this dominance had lessened significantly.[171]
Impact of the war
Casualties and war crimes
Main articles: World War II casualties and War crimes during World War II
Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, but most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians.[172][173][174] Many civilians died because of disease, starvation, massacres, genocide. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II casualties.[175] Of the total deaths in World War II, approximately 85% were on the Allied side (mostly Soviet and Chinese) and 15% on the Axis side. One estimate is that 12 million civilians died in Holocaust camps,[176] 1.5 million by bombs, 7 million in Europe from other causes, and 7.5 million in China from other causes.[177] Figures on the amount of total casualties vary to a wide extent because the majority of deaths were not documented.
Many of these deaths were a result of genocidal actions committed in Axis-occupied territories and other war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces. Widely considered the most notorious of these acts by German forces is The Holocaust, the systematic purging of Jews in Europe which resulted in the murder of roughly six million Jewish people. In addition to this, the Nazis also targeted other groups, including Roma, Slavs and homosexuals, exterminating roughly five million additional people.[178] For Japan, the most well-known is probably the Nanking Massacre, in which several hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.[179] Japanese military murdered from nearly 3 million to over 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese.[180] According to Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2.7 million died during the Sankō Sakusen implemented in Heipei and Shantung by General Yasuji Okamura.
Limited Axis usage of biological and chemical weapons is also known. The Italians used mustard gas during their conquest of Abyssinia,[181] while the Japanese Imperial Army used a variety of such weapons during their invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[182] and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[183] Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians[184] and, in some cases, on prisoners.[185]
While many of the Axis's acts were brought to trial in the worlds first international tribunals,[186] incidents caused by the Allies were not. Examples of such actions include population transfer in the Soviet Union, ethnic internment in the United States, the Soviet massacre of Polish citizens and the controversial mass-bombing of civilian areas in enemy territory, most notably at Dresden.[187]
Large numbers of deaths can also be attributed, if even partially, indirectly to the war, such as the Bengal famine of 1943.
Concentration camps and slave work
The Holocaust was the killing of approximately six million European Jews as well as two million ethnic Poles and four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Roma) as part of a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist government in Germany led by Adolf Hitler. About 12 million forced laborers, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy inside the Nazi Germany.[188]
Victims of the Holocaust
Victims of the Holocaust
In addition to the Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet Gulag, or labor camps, led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POW) and even Soviet citizens themselves who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.[189] Sixty percent of Soviet POWs died during the war.[190] Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57% died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million.[191] The survivors on their return to the USSR were treated as traitors (see Order No. 270).[192]
Body disposal at Unit 731, the infamous Japanese biological warfare research unit.
Body disposal at Unit 731, the infamous Japanese biological warfare research unit.
Japanese POW camps also had high death rates, many were used as labour camps. According to the findings of the Tokyo tribunal, the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1% (American POWs died at a rate of 37%),[193] seven times that of POW's under the Germans and Italians[194] The death rate of Chinese was much larger as, according to the directive ratified on 5 August 1937 by Hirohito, the constraints of international law were removed on those prisoners.[195] Thus, if 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from Netherlands and 14,473 from USA were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.[196]
According to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by the Kōa-in for slave labor in Manchukuo and north China.[197] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.[198]
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945
On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, and some emigrants from Hawaii who fled after the bombing of Pearl Harbor for the duration of the war. 150,000 Japanese-Americans were interned by the U.S. and Canadian governments, as well as nearly 11,000 German and Italian residents of the U.S.
Allied use of slave labor occurred mainly in the east, such as in Poland,[199] but more than a million was also put to work in the west. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or maimed each month in mine-clearing accidents.[200]
Home fronts and production
Main articles: military production during World War II and Home front during World War II
Allied to Axis GDP ratio.
Allied to Axis GDP ratio.
In Europe, prior to the start of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30% larger population and a 30% higher gross domestic product then the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more then a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.[201] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only a 89% higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38% higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.[201]
Though the Allies economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.[202]
While the Allies ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to utilize women in the labour force,[203][204] Allied strategic bombing,[205][206] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[207] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned on fighting a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so.[208][209] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[210] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[211] while Japan pressed more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.[212]
War time occupation
Main articles: Collaboration during World War II and Resistance during World War II
In Europe, occupation came under two very different forms. In western, northern and central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[213] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40% of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40% of total German income as the war went on.[214]
In the east, the much hoped for bounties of lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[215] Unlike in the west, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions.[216] Although resistance groups did form in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the east[217] or the west[218] until late 1943.
In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonized peoples.[219] Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in many territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinions against them within weeks.[220] During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4 million barrels of oil left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels, 76% of its 1940 output rate.[220]
Advances in technology and warfare
Main article: Technology during World War II
During the war, aircraft continued their roles of reconnaissance, fighters, bombers and ground-support from World War I, though each area was advanced considerably. Two important additional roles for aircraft were those of the airlift, the capability to quickly move high-priority supplies, equipment and personnel, albeit in limited quantities;[221] and of strategic bombing, the targeted use bombs against civilian areas in the hopes of hampering enemy industry and morale.[222] Anti-aircraft weaponry also continued to advance, including key defences such as radar and greatly improved anti-aircraft artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. Jet aircraft saw their first limited operational use during World War II, and though their late introduction and limited numbers meant that they had no real impact during the war itself, the few which saw active service pioneered a mass-shift to their usage following the war.[223]
At sea, while advances were made in almost all aspects of naval warfare, the two primary areas of development were focused around aircraft carriers and submarines. Although at the start of the war aeronautical warfare had relatively little success,[224] actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea and the Coral Sea soon established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.[225][226] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius dramatically and helping to seal the Mid-Atlantic gap.[227] Beyond their increased effectiveness, carriers were also more economical then battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft[228] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[229] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the first World War[230] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and Wolf pack tactics.[231] Gradually, continually improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.
Overland warfare changed drastically from the static front lines experienced during World War I to become much more fluid and mobile. An important change was the concept of combined arms warfare, wherein tight coordination was sought between the various elements of military forces; the tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry-support in the first World War, had evolved into the primary weapon of these forces during the second.[232] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced in all areas then it had been during World War I,[233] and advances continued throughout the war in increasing speed, armour and fire-power. At the start of the war, most armies considered the tank to be the best weapon against itself, and developed special purpose tanks to that effect.[234] This line of thinking was all but negated by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank armaments against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-to-tank combat; the latter factor, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[232] Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry carried anti-tank weaponry, and other tanks were utilized.[234] Even with the large-scale mechanization of the various armies, the infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[235] and throughout the war, most infantry equipment was similar to that utilized in World War I.[236] Some of the primary advances though, were the widespread incorporation of readily portable machine guns, a most notable example being the German MG42, and various submachine guns which were well suited to close quarters combat in urban and jungle settings.[236] The assault rifle, a late war development which incorporated many of the best features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the post-war standard infantry weapon for nearly all armed forces.
In terms of communications, most of the major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security presented by utilizing large codebooks for cryptography with the creation of various ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.[237] SIGINT (signals intelligence) was the countering process of decryption, with the notable examples being the British ULTRA and the Allied breaking of Japanese naval codes. Another important aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception operations, which the Allies successfully used on several occasions to great effect, such as operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard, which diverted German attention and forces away from the Allied invasions of Sicily and Normandy respectively.
Other important technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the worlds first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[/SIZE]
protnie
Legacy Member
Charles Robert Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, eminent as a collector and geologist, who proposed and provided scientific evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors through the process he called natural selection.[1] The fact that evolution occurs became accepted by the scientific community and the general public in his lifetime, while his theory of natural selection came to be widely seen as the primary explanation of the process of evolution in the 1930s,[1] and now forms the basis of modern evolutionary theory. In modified form, Darwin’s scientific discovery remains the foundation of biology, as it provides a unifying logical explanation for the diversity of life.[2]
Darwin developed his interest in natural history while studying first medicine at Edinburgh University, then theology at Cambridge.[3] His five-year voyage on the Beagle established him as a geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell’s uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838.[4] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[5] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described a similar theory, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[6]
His 1859 book On the Origin of Species established evolution by common descent as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. He examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.[7]
In recognition of Darwin’s pre-eminence, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[8]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Biography
o 1.1 Early life
o 1.2 Journey of the Beagle
o 1.3 Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
o 1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage
o 1.5 Preparing the theory of natural selection for publication
o 1.6 Publication of the theory of natural selection
o 1.7 Reaction to the publication
o 1.8 Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany
* 2 Darwin’s children
* 3 Religious views
* 4 Political interpretations
o 4.1 Eugenics
o 4.2 Social Darwinism
* 5 Commemoration
* 6 Works
* 7 See also
* 8 Notes
* 9 Citations
* 10 References
* 11 External links
Biography
Early life
For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin's education.
The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, one year before his mother’s death.
The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, one year before his mother’s death.
Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, the Mount.[9] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin, and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin on his father’s side, and of Josiah Wedgwood on his mother’s side. Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, made a nod toward convention by having baby Charles baptised in the Anglican Church. Nonetheless, Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother, and in 1817, Charles joined the day school, run by its preacher. In July of that year, when Charles was eight years old, his mother died. From September 1818, he attended the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.[10]
Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire. In the autumn, he went to the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, to study medicine, but he was revolted by the brutality of surgery and neglected his medical studies. He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of the South American rainforest. Later, in The Descent of Man, he used this experience as evidence that “Negroes and Europeans” were closely related despite superficial differences in appearance.[11]
In Darwin’s second year, he joined the Plinian Society, a student group interested in natural history.[12] He became a keen pupil of Robert Edmund Grant, a proponent of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s theory of evolution by acquired characteristics, which Charles’s grandfather Erasmus had also advocated. On the shores of the Firth of Forth, Darwin joined in Grant’s investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. These studies found evidence for homology, the radical theory that all animals have similar organs which differ only in complexity, thus showing common descent.[13] In March 1827, Darwin made a presentation to the Plinian of his own discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech.[14] He also sat in on Robert Jameson’s natural history course, learning about stratigraphic geology, receiving training in classifying plants, and assisting with work on the extensive collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.[15]
In 1827, his father, unhappy at his younger son’s lack of progress, shrewdly enrolled him in a Bachelor of Arts course at Christ’s College, Cambridge to qualify as a clergyman, expecting him to get a good income as an Anglican parson.[16] However, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying.[17] Along with his cousin William Darwin Fox, he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of beetles.[18] Fox introduced him to the Reverend John Stevens Henslow, professor of botany, for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow’s natural history course and became his favourite pupil, known to the dons as “the man who walks with Henslow”.[19][20] When exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and received private instruction from Henslow. Darwin was particularly enthusiastic about the writings of William Paley, including the argument for divine design in nature.[21] It has been argued that Darwin’s enthusiasm for Paley’s religious adaptationism paradoxically played a role even later, when Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection.[22] In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in theology and, having scraped through in classics, mathematics and physics, came tenth out of a pass list of 178.[23]
Residential requirements kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. Following Henslow’s example and advice, he was in no rush to take Holy Orders. Inspired by Alexander von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, he planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick and, in the summer, went with him to assist in mapping strata in Wales.[24] After a fortnight with student friends at Barmouth, he returned home to find a letter from Henslow recommending Darwin as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for the unpaid position of gentleman’s companion to Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle, which was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. His father objected to the planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to his son’s participation.[25]
Journey of the Beagle
For more details on this topic, see Second voyage of HMS Beagle.
The voyage of the Beagle.
The voyage of the Beagle.
The Beagle survey took five years, two-thirds of which Darwin spent on land. He carefully noted a rich variety of geological features, fossils and living organisms, and methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many of them new to science.[1] At intervals during the voyage he sent specimens to Cambridge together with letters about his findings, and these established his reputation as a naturalist. His extensive detailed notes showed his gift for theorising and formed the basis for his later work. The journal he originally wrote for his family, published as The Voyage of the Beagle, summarises his findings and provides social, political and anthropological insights into the wide range of people he met, both native and colonial.[26]
While on board the ship, Darwin suffered badly from seasickness.[27] In October 1833 he caught a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, while returning from the Andes down to Valparaíso, he fell ill and spent a month in bed.[28]
Before they set out, FitzRoy gave Darwin the first volume of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which explained landforms as the outcome of gradual processes over huge periods of time.[II] On their first stop ashore at St Jago, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs consisted of baked coral fragments and shells. This matched Lyell’s concept of land slowly rising or falling, giving Darwin a new insight into the geological history of the island which inspired him to think of writing a book on geology.[29] He went on to make many more discoveries, some of them particularly dramatic.[1] He saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells in Patagonia as raised beaches, and after experiencing an earthquake in Chile saw mussel-beds stranded above high tide showing that the land had just been raised. High in the Andes he saw several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach, with seashells nearby. He theorised that coral atolls form on sinking volcanic mountains, and confirmed this when the Beagle surveyed the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.[30]
In South America, Darwin found and excavated rare fossils of gigantic extinct mammals in strata with modern seashells, indicating recent extinction and no change in climate or signs of catastrophe. Though he correctly identified one as a Megatherium and fragments of armour reminded him of the local armadillo, he assumed his finds were related to African or European species and it was a revelation to him after the voyage when Richard Owen showed that they were closely related to living creatures exclusively found in the Americas.[31]
As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.
As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.
Lyell’s second volume, which argued against evolutionism and explained species distribution by “centres of creation”, was sent out to Darwin. He puzzled over all he saw, and his ideas went beyond Lyell.[32] In Argentina, he found that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories. On the Galápagos Islands he collected birds, and noted that mockingbirds differed depending on which island they came from.[33] He also heard that local Spaniards could tell from their appearance on which island tortoises originated, but thought the creatures had been imported by buccaneers.[34] In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.[35]
In Cape Town he and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell about that “mystery of mysteries”, the origin of species. When organising his notes on the return journey, Darwin wrote that if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Island Fox were correct, “such facts undermine the stability of Species”, then cautiously added “would” before “undermine”.[36] He later wrote that such facts “seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species”.[37]
Three natives who had been taken from Tierra del Fuego on the Beagle’s previous voyage were taken back there to become missionaries. They had become “civilised” in England over the previous two years, yet their relatives appeared to Darwin to be “miserable, degraded savages”.[38] A year on, the mission had been abandoned and only Jemmy Button spoke with them to say he preferred his harsh previous way of life and did not want to return to England. Because of this experience, Darwin came to think that humans were not as far removed from animals as his friends then believed, and saw differences as relating to cultural advances towards civilisation rather than being racial. He detested the slavery he saw elsewhere in South America, and was saddened by the effects of European settlement on Aborigines in Australia and Maori in New Zealand.[39]
Captain FitzRoy was committed to writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and near the end of the voyage, he read Darwin’s diary and asked him to rewrite this Journal to provide the third volume, on natural history.[40]
Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
For more details on this topic, see Inception of Darwin's theory.
While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.
While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.
While Darwin was still on the voyage, Henslow fostered his former pupil’s reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and a pamphlet of Darwin’s geological letters.[41] When the Beagle returned on 2 October 1836, Darwin was a celebrity in scientific circles. After visiting his home in Shrewsbury and seeing relatives, Darwin hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised on finding naturalists available to describe and catalogue the collections, and agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin’s father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. Zoologists had a huge backlog of work, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.[42]
An eager Charles Lyell met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons at his disposal to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen’s surprising results included gigantic sloths, a hippopotamus-like skull from the extinct rodent Toxodon, and armour fragments from a huge extinct armadillo (Glyptodon), as Darwin had initially surmised.[43] The fossil creatures were unrelated to African animals, but closely related to living species in South America.[44]
In mid-December, Darwin moved to Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal.[45] He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell’s enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon revealed that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, “gros-beaks” and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February 1837, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geographical Society, and in his presidential address, Lyell presented Owen’s findings on Darwin’s fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.[46]
Darwin’s first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his First Notebook on Transmutation of Species (1837)
Darwin’s first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his First Notebook on Transmutation of Species (1837)
On 6 March 1837, Darwin moved to London to be close to this work, and joined the social whirl around scientists and savants such as Charles Babbage, who thought that God preordained life by natural laws rather than ad hoc miraculous creations. Darwin lived near his freethinking brother Erasmus, who was part of this Whig circle and whose close friend the writer Harriet Martineau promoted the ideas of Thomas Malthus underlying the Whig “Poor Law reforms” aimed at discouraging the poor from breeding beyond available food supplies. John Herschel’s question on the origin of species was widely discussed. Medical men even joined Grant in endorsing transmutation of species, but to Darwin’s scientist friends such radical heresy attacked the divine basis of the social order already under threat from recession and riots.[47]
Gould now revealed that the Galapagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and the “wrens” were yet another species of finches. Darwin had not kept track of which islands the finch specimens were from, but found information from the notes of others on the Beagle, including FitzRoy, who had more carefully recorded their own collections. The zoologist Thomas Bell showed that the Galápagos tortoises were native to the islands. By mid-March, Darwin was convinced that creatures arriving in the islands had become altered in some way to form new species on the different islands, and investigated transmutation while noting his speculations in his “Red Notebook” which he had begun on the Beagle. In mid-July, he began his secret “B” notebook on transmutation, and on page 36 wrote “I think” above his first sketch of an evolutionary tree.[48]
Overwork, illness, and marriage
As well as launching into this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. While still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow’s help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. He agreed to unrealistic dates for this and for a book on South American Geology supporting Lyell’s ideas. Darwin finished writing his Journal around 20 June 1837 just as Queen Victoria came to the throne, but then had its proofs to correct.[49]
Darwin’s health suffered from the pressure. On 20 September 1837, he had “palpitations of the heart”. On doctor’s advice that a month of recuperation was needed, he went to Shrewsbury then on to visit his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Jos pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms. This inspired a talk which Darwin gave to the Geological Society on 1 November, the first demonstration of the role of earthworms in soil formation.[50]
William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After first declining this extra work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[51] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, remarkable progress was made on transmutation. Darwin took every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[1][52] Over time his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[53] He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an ape in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its child-like behaviour.[54]
The strain took its toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms.[55] For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of Darwin’s illness was unknown during his lifetime, and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent attempts at diagnosis have suggested Chagas disease caught from insect bites in South America, Ménière’s disease, or various psychological illnesses as possible causes, without any conclusive results.[56]
On 23 June 1838, he took a break from the pressure of work and went “geologising” in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel “roads” cut into the hillsides at three heights. He thought that these were marine raised beaches: they were later shown to have been shorelines of a proglacial lake.[57]
Charles chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.
Charles chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed “Marry” and “Not Marry”. Advantages included “constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow”, against points such as “less money for books” and “terrible loss of time.”[58] Having decided in favour, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit Emma on 29 July 1838. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father’s advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.[59]
Continuing his research in London, Darwin’s wide reading now included “for amusement” the 6th edition of Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population which calculates from the birth rate that human population could double every 25 years, but in practice growth is kept in check by death, disease, wars and famine.[1][60] Darwin was well prepared to see at once that this also applied to de Candolle’s “warring of the species” of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. This would result in the formation of new species.[61] On 28 September 1838 he noted this insight, describing it as a kind of wedging, forcing adapted structures into gaps in the economy of nature as weaker structures were thrust out.[1] He now had a theory by which to work, and over the following months compared farmers picking the best breeding stock to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by “chance” so that “every part of [every] newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected”, and thought this analogy “the most beautiful part of my theory”.[62]
On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness, but her upbringing as a very devout Anglican led her to express fears that his lapses of faith could endanger her hopes to meet in the afterlife.[63] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking “So don’t be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you.” He found what they called “Macaw Cottage” (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his “museum” in over Christmas. The marriage was arranged for 24 January 1839, but the Wedgwoods set the date back. On the 24th, Darwin was honoured by being elected as Fellow of the Royal Society.[64]
On 29 January 1839, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.[65]
Preparing the theory of natural selection for publication
For more details on this topic, see Development of Darwin's theory.
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection “by which to work”,[66] as his “prime hobby”.[67] His research subsequently included animal husbandry and extensive experiments with plants,[1] investigating many detailed ideas and finding evidence that species were not fixed to convince sceptical naturalists. For more than a decade this work was in the background to his main occupation, publication of the scientific results of the Beagle voyage.[68]
When FitzRoy’s Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin’s Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle) as the third volume was such a success that later that year it was published on its own.[69]
Early in 1842, Darwin sent a letter about his ideas to Lyell, who was dismayed that his ally now denied “seeing a beginning to each crop of species”. In May, Darwin’s book on coral reefs was published after more than three years of work, and he then wrote a “pencil sketch” of his theory.[70] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in November.[71] On 11 January 1844 Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour “it is like confessing a murder”.[72][73] To his relief, Hooker replied “There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject.”[74]
Darwin’s “Thinking Path”, 2007, Down House grounds.
Darwin’s “Thinking Path”, 2007, Down House grounds.
By July, Darwin had expanded his “sketch” into a 230-page “Essay”, to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.[75] He was shocked in November to find many of his arguments anticipated in the anonymously published Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, though it lacked any convincing explanation for transmutation. The book was amateurish and he scorned its geology and anatomy, but as a best-seller it widened middle-class interest in transmutation, paving the way for Darwin as well as reminding him of the need to counter all arguments.[76] Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846, and turned in relief to dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected, using his new ideas of common descent, and the anatomy he had learnt as Grant’s student.[77] In 1847, Hooker read the “Essay” and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin’s opposition to continuing acts of creation.[78]
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully’s Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[79] Then in 1851 his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. After a long series of crises, she died and Darwin’s faith in Christianity dwindled away.[80]
In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin found “homologies” that supported his theory by showing that slightly changed body parts could serve different functions to meet new conditions.[81] In 1853 it earned him the Royal Society’s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist.[82] He resumed work on his theory of species in 1854, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to “diversified places in the economy of nature”.[83]
Publication of the theory of natural selection
For more details on this topic, see Publication of Darwin's theory.
Darwin was forced into swift publication of his theory of natural selection.
Darwin was forced into swift publication of his theory of natural selection.
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was firmly against evolution. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin’s speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace on the Introduction of species, he saw similarities with Darwin’s thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, he began work on a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a “big book on species” titled Natural Selection. He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In December 1857, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, “so surrounded with prejudices”, while encouraging Wallace’s theorising and adding that “I go much further than you.”[84]
Darwin developed his interest in natural history while studying first medicine at Edinburgh University, then theology at Cambridge.[3] His five-year voyage on the Beagle established him as a geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell’s uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838.[4] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[5] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described a similar theory, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[6]
His 1859 book On the Origin of Species established evolution by common descent as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. He examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.[7]
In recognition of Darwin’s pre-eminence, he was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[8]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Biography
o 1.1 Early life
o 1.2 Journey of the Beagle
o 1.3 Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
o 1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage
o 1.5 Preparing the theory of natural selection for publication
o 1.6 Publication of the theory of natural selection
o 1.7 Reaction to the publication
o 1.8 Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany
* 2 Darwin’s children
* 3 Religious views
* 4 Political interpretations
o 4.1 Eugenics
o 4.2 Social Darwinism
* 5 Commemoration
* 6 Works
* 7 See also
* 8 Notes
* 9 Citations
* 10 References
* 11 External links
Biography
Early life
For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin's education.
The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, one year before his mother’s death.
The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, one year before his mother’s death.
Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on 12 February 1809 at his family home, the Mount.[9] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin, and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). He was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin on his father’s side, and of Josiah Wedgwood on his mother’s side. Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, made a nod toward convention by having baby Charles baptised in the Anglican Church. Nonetheless, Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother, and in 1817, Charles joined the day school, run by its preacher. In July of that year, when Charles was eight years old, his mother died. From September 1818, he attended the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.[10]
Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire. In the autumn, he went to the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, to study medicine, but he was revolted by the brutality of surgery and neglected his medical studies. He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who told him exciting tales of the South American rainforest. Later, in The Descent of Man, he used this experience as evidence that “Negroes and Europeans” were closely related despite superficial differences in appearance.[11]
In Darwin’s second year, he joined the Plinian Society, a student group interested in natural history.[12] He became a keen pupil of Robert Edmund Grant, a proponent of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s theory of evolution by acquired characteristics, which Charles’s grandfather Erasmus had also advocated. On the shores of the Firth of Forth, Darwin joined in Grant’s investigations of the life cycle of marine animals. These studies found evidence for homology, the radical theory that all animals have similar organs which differ only in complexity, thus showing common descent.[13] In March 1827, Darwin made a presentation to the Plinian of his own discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech.[14] He also sat in on Robert Jameson’s natural history course, learning about stratigraphic geology, receiving training in classifying plants, and assisting with work on the extensive collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.[15]
In 1827, his father, unhappy at his younger son’s lack of progress, shrewdly enrolled him in a Bachelor of Arts course at Christ’s College, Cambridge to qualify as a clergyman, expecting him to get a good income as an Anglican parson.[16] However, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying.[17] Along with his cousin William Darwin Fox, he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of beetles.[18] Fox introduced him to the Reverend John Stevens Henslow, professor of botany, for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow’s natural history course and became his favourite pupil, known to the dons as “the man who walks with Henslow”.[19][20] When exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and received private instruction from Henslow. Darwin was particularly enthusiastic about the writings of William Paley, including the argument for divine design in nature.[21] It has been argued that Darwin’s enthusiasm for Paley’s religious adaptationism paradoxically played a role even later, when Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection.[22] In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in theology and, having scraped through in classics, mathematics and physics, came tenth out of a pass list of 178.[23]
Residential requirements kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. Following Henslow’s example and advice, he was in no rush to take Holy Orders. Inspired by Alexander von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative, he planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick and, in the summer, went with him to assist in mapping strata in Wales.[24] After a fortnight with student friends at Barmouth, he returned home to find a letter from Henslow recommending Darwin as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for the unpaid position of gentleman’s companion to Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle, which was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. His father objected to the planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to his son’s participation.[25]
Journey of the Beagle
For more details on this topic, see Second voyage of HMS Beagle.
The voyage of the Beagle.
The voyage of the Beagle.
The Beagle survey took five years, two-thirds of which Darwin spent on land. He carefully noted a rich variety of geological features, fossils and living organisms, and methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many of them new to science.[1] At intervals during the voyage he sent specimens to Cambridge together with letters about his findings, and these established his reputation as a naturalist. His extensive detailed notes showed his gift for theorising and formed the basis for his later work. The journal he originally wrote for his family, published as The Voyage of the Beagle, summarises his findings and provides social, political and anthropological insights into the wide range of people he met, both native and colonial.[26]
While on board the ship, Darwin suffered badly from seasickness.[27] In October 1833 he caught a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, while returning from the Andes down to Valparaíso, he fell ill and spent a month in bed.[28]
Before they set out, FitzRoy gave Darwin the first volume of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology, which explained landforms as the outcome of gradual processes over huge periods of time.[II] On their first stop ashore at St Jago, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs consisted of baked coral fragments and shells. This matched Lyell’s concept of land slowly rising or falling, giving Darwin a new insight into the geological history of the island which inspired him to think of writing a book on geology.[29] He went on to make many more discoveries, some of them particularly dramatic.[1] He saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells in Patagonia as raised beaches, and after experiencing an earthquake in Chile saw mussel-beds stranded above high tide showing that the land had just been raised. High in the Andes he saw several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach, with seashells nearby. He theorised that coral atolls form on sinking volcanic mountains, and confirmed this when the Beagle surveyed the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.[30]
In South America, Darwin found and excavated rare fossils of gigantic extinct mammals in strata with modern seashells, indicating recent extinction and no change in climate or signs of catastrophe. Though he correctly identified one as a Megatherium and fragments of armour reminded him of the local armadillo, he assumed his finds were related to African or European species and it was a revelation to him after the voyage when Richard Owen showed that they were closely related to living creatures exclusively found in the Americas.[31]
As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.
As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.
Lyell’s second volume, which argued against evolutionism and explained species distribution by “centres of creation”, was sent out to Darwin. He puzzled over all he saw, and his ideas went beyond Lyell.[32] In Argentina, he found that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories. On the Galápagos Islands he collected birds, and noted that mockingbirds differed depending on which island they came from.[33] He also heard that local Spaniards could tell from their appearance on which island tortoises originated, but thought the creatures had been imported by buccaneers.[34] In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.[35]
In Cape Town he and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell about that “mystery of mysteries”, the origin of species. When organising his notes on the return journey, Darwin wrote that if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Island Fox were correct, “such facts undermine the stability of Species”, then cautiously added “would” before “undermine”.[36] He later wrote that such facts “seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species”.[37]
Three natives who had been taken from Tierra del Fuego on the Beagle’s previous voyage were taken back there to become missionaries. They had become “civilised” in England over the previous two years, yet their relatives appeared to Darwin to be “miserable, degraded savages”.[38] A year on, the mission had been abandoned and only Jemmy Button spoke with them to say he preferred his harsh previous way of life and did not want to return to England. Because of this experience, Darwin came to think that humans were not as far removed from animals as his friends then believed, and saw differences as relating to cultural advances towards civilisation rather than being racial. He detested the slavery he saw elsewhere in South America, and was saddened by the effects of European settlement on Aborigines in Australia and Maori in New Zealand.[39]
Captain FitzRoy was committed to writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and near the end of the voyage, he read Darwin’s diary and asked him to rewrite this Journal to provide the third volume, on natural history.[40]
Inception of Darwin’s evolutionary theory
For more details on this topic, see Inception of Darwin's theory.
While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.
While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.
While Darwin was still on the voyage, Henslow fostered his former pupil’s reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and a pamphlet of Darwin’s geological letters.[41] When the Beagle returned on 2 October 1836, Darwin was a celebrity in scientific circles. After visiting his home in Shrewsbury and seeing relatives, Darwin hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised on finding naturalists available to describe and catalogue the collections, and agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin’s father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. Zoologists had a huge backlog of work, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.[42]
An eager Charles Lyell met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons at his disposal to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen’s surprising results included gigantic sloths, a hippopotamus-like skull from the extinct rodent Toxodon, and armour fragments from a huge extinct armadillo (Glyptodon), as Darwin had initially surmised.[43] The fossil creatures were unrelated to African animals, but closely related to living species in South America.[44]
In mid-December, Darwin moved to Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal.[45] He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell’s enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon revealed that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, “gros-beaks” and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February 1837, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geographical Society, and in his presidential address, Lyell presented Owen’s findings on Darwin’s fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.[46]
Darwin’s first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his First Notebook on Transmutation of Species (1837)
Darwin’s first sketch of an evolutionary tree from his First Notebook on Transmutation of Species (1837)
On 6 March 1837, Darwin moved to London to be close to this work, and joined the social whirl around scientists and savants such as Charles Babbage, who thought that God preordained life by natural laws rather than ad hoc miraculous creations. Darwin lived near his freethinking brother Erasmus, who was part of this Whig circle and whose close friend the writer Harriet Martineau promoted the ideas of Thomas Malthus underlying the Whig “Poor Law reforms” aimed at discouraging the poor from breeding beyond available food supplies. John Herschel’s question on the origin of species was widely discussed. Medical men even joined Grant in endorsing transmutation of species, but to Darwin’s scientist friends such radical heresy attacked the divine basis of the social order already under threat from recession and riots.[47]
Gould now revealed that the Galapagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and the “wrens” were yet another species of finches. Darwin had not kept track of which islands the finch specimens were from, but found information from the notes of others on the Beagle, including FitzRoy, who had more carefully recorded their own collections. The zoologist Thomas Bell showed that the Galápagos tortoises were native to the islands. By mid-March, Darwin was convinced that creatures arriving in the islands had become altered in some way to form new species on the different islands, and investigated transmutation while noting his speculations in his “Red Notebook” which he had begun on the Beagle. In mid-July, he began his secret “B” notebook on transmutation, and on page 36 wrote “I think” above his first sketch of an evolutionary tree.[48]
Overwork, illness, and marriage
As well as launching into this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. While still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow’s help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. He agreed to unrealistic dates for this and for a book on South American Geology supporting Lyell’s ideas. Darwin finished writing his Journal around 20 June 1837 just as Queen Victoria came to the throne, but then had its proofs to correct.[49]
Darwin’s health suffered from the pressure. On 20 September 1837, he had “palpitations of the heart”. On doctor’s advice that a month of recuperation was needed, he went to Shrewsbury then on to visit his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Jos pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms. This inspired a talk which Darwin gave to the Geological Society on 1 November, the first demonstration of the role of earthworms in soil formation.[50]
William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After first declining this extra work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[51] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, remarkable progress was made on transmutation. Darwin took every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[1][52] Over time his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[53] He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an ape in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its child-like behaviour.[54]
The strain took its toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms.[55] For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of Darwin’s illness was unknown during his lifetime, and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent attempts at diagnosis have suggested Chagas disease caught from insect bites in South America, Ménière’s disease, or various psychological illnesses as possible causes, without any conclusive results.[56]
On 23 June 1838, he took a break from the pressure of work and went “geologising” in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel “roads” cut into the hillsides at three heights. He thought that these were marine raised beaches: they were later shown to have been shorelines of a proglacial lake.[57]
Charles chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.
Charles chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed “Marry” and “Not Marry”. Advantages included “constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow”, against points such as “less money for books” and “terrible loss of time.”[58] Having decided in favour, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit Emma on 29 July 1838. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father’s advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.[59]
Continuing his research in London, Darwin’s wide reading now included “for amusement” the 6th edition of Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population which calculates from the birth rate that human population could double every 25 years, but in practice growth is kept in check by death, disease, wars and famine.[1][60] Darwin was well prepared to see at once that this also applied to de Candolle’s “warring of the species” of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. This would result in the formation of new species.[61] On 28 September 1838 he noted this insight, describing it as a kind of wedging, forcing adapted structures into gaps in the economy of nature as weaker structures were thrust out.[1] He now had a theory by which to work, and over the following months compared farmers picking the best breeding stock to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by “chance” so that “every part of [every] newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected”, and thought this analogy “the most beautiful part of my theory”.[62]
On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness, but her upbringing as a very devout Anglican led her to express fears that his lapses of faith could endanger her hopes to meet in the afterlife.[63] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking “So don’t be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you.” He found what they called “Macaw Cottage” (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his “museum” in over Christmas. The marriage was arranged for 24 January 1839, but the Wedgwoods set the date back. On the 24th, Darwin was honoured by being elected as Fellow of the Royal Society.[64]
On 29 January 1839, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.[65]
Preparing the theory of natural selection for publication
For more details on this topic, see Development of Darwin's theory.
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection “by which to work”,[66] as his “prime hobby”.[67] His research subsequently included animal husbandry and extensive experiments with plants,[1] investigating many detailed ideas and finding evidence that species were not fixed to convince sceptical naturalists. For more than a decade this work was in the background to his main occupation, publication of the scientific results of the Beagle voyage.[68]
When FitzRoy’s Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin’s Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle) as the third volume was such a success that later that year it was published on its own.[69]
Early in 1842, Darwin sent a letter about his ideas to Lyell, who was dismayed that his ally now denied “seeing a beginning to each crop of species”. In May, Darwin’s book on coral reefs was published after more than three years of work, and he then wrote a “pencil sketch” of his theory.[70] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in November.[71] On 11 January 1844 Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour “it is like confessing a murder”.[72][73] To his relief, Hooker replied “There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject.”[74]
Darwin’s “Thinking Path”, 2007, Down House grounds.
Darwin’s “Thinking Path”, 2007, Down House grounds.
By July, Darwin had expanded his “sketch” into a 230-page “Essay”, to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.[75] He was shocked in November to find many of his arguments anticipated in the anonymously published Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, though it lacked any convincing explanation for transmutation. The book was amateurish and he scorned its geology and anatomy, but as a best-seller it widened middle-class interest in transmutation, paving the way for Darwin as well as reminding him of the need to counter all arguments.[76] Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846, and turned in relief to dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected, using his new ideas of common descent, and the anatomy he had learnt as Grant’s student.[77] In 1847, Hooker read the “Essay” and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin’s opposition to continuing acts of creation.[78]
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully’s Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[79] Then in 1851 his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. After a long series of crises, she died and Darwin’s faith in Christianity dwindled away.[80]
In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin found “homologies” that supported his theory by showing that slightly changed body parts could serve different functions to meet new conditions.[81] In 1853 it earned him the Royal Society’s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist.[82] He resumed work on his theory of species in 1854, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to “diversified places in the economy of nature”.[83]
Publication of the theory of natural selection
For more details on this topic, see Publication of Darwin's theory.
Darwin was forced into swift publication of his theory of natural selection.
Darwin was forced into swift publication of his theory of natural selection.
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was firmly against evolution. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin’s speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace on the Introduction of species, he saw similarities with Darwin’s thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, he began work on a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a “big book on species” titled Natural Selection. He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In December 1857, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, “so surrounded with prejudices”, while encouraging Wallace’s theorising and adding that “I go much further than you.”[84]
protnie
Legacy Member
Darwin’s book was half way when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been “forestalled”, Darwin sent it on to Lyell, as requested, and, though Wallace had not asked for publication, offered to send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of Lyell and Hooker. They agreed on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection; however, Darwin’s baby son died of the scarlet fever and he was too distraught to attend.[85]
There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.[86] Later, Darwin could only recall one review; Professor Haughton of Dublin claimed that “all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old.”[87] Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his “big book”, suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.[88]
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (usually abbreviated to On the Origin of Species) proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[89] In the book, Darwin set out “one long argument” of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.[90] His only allusion to human evolution was the understatement that “light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history”.[91] His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.[92]
He put a strong case for common descent, but avoided the then controversial term “evolution”, and at the end of the book concluded that;
There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.[93]
As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, amusing cariacatures of him with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution.
As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, amusing cariacatures of him with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution.[94]
Reaction to the publication
For more details on this topic, see Reaction to Darwin's theory.
There was wide public interest in Charles Darwin’s book and a controversy which he monitored closely, keeping press cuttings of reviews, articles, satires, parodies and caricatures.[95] Darwin had carefully said no more than "Light will be thrown on the origin of man",[96] but the first review claimed it made a creed of the “men from monkeys” idea already controversial from Vestiges.[97] Amongst favourable responses Huxley’s reviews included swipes at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow, and when Owen's review appeared it joined others condemning the book.[98]
The Church of England scientific establishment, including Darwin’s old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow, reacted against the book, though it was well received by a younger generation of professional naturalists. In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention away from Darwin. An explanation of higher criticism and other heresies, it included the argument that miracles broke God’s laws, so belief in them was atheistic—and praise for “Mr Darwin’s masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature”.[99]
The most famous confrontation took place at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Professor John William Draper delivered a long lecture about Darwin and social progress, then Samuel Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, argued against Darwin. In the ensuing debate Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin and Thomas Huxley established himself as “Darwin’s bulldog” – the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage. Both sides came away feeling victorious, but Huxley went on to make much of his claim that on being asked by Wilberforce whether he was descended from monkeys on his grandfather’s side or his grandmother’s side, Huxley muttered: “The Lord has delivered him into my hands” and replied that he “would rather be descended from an ape than from a cultivated man who used his gifts of culture and eloquence in the service of prejudice and falsehood”.[100]
Down House Entrance.
Down House Entrance.
Darwin’s illness kept him away from the public debates, though he read eagerly about them and mustered support through correspondence. Asa Gray persuaded a publisher in the United States to pay royalties, and Darwin imported and distributed Gray’s pamphlet Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.[101] In Britain, friends including Hooker[102] and Lyell[103] took part in the scientific debates which Huxley pugnaciously led to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen made the mistake of (wrongly) claiming certain anatomical differences between ape and human brains, and accusing Huxley of advocating “Ape Origin of Man”. Huxley gladly did just that, and his campaign over two years was devastatingly successful in ousting Owen and the “old guard”.[104] Darwin’s friends formed The X Club and helped to gain him the honour of the Royal Society’s Copley Medal in 1864.[103]
Broader public interest had already been stimulated by Vestiges, and the Origin of Species was translated into many languages and went through numerous reprints, becoming a staple scientific text accessible both to a newly curious middle class and to “working men” who flocked to Huxley’s lectures.[105] Darwin’s theory also resonated with various movements at the time[III] and became a key fixture of popular culture.[IV]
Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany
More detailed articles cover Darwin’s life from Orchids to Variation, from Descent of Man to Emotions and from Insectivorous plants to Worms
Julia Margaret Cameron’s portrait of Darwin
Julia Margaret Cameron’s portrait of Darwin
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin pressed on with his work. He had published an abstract of his theory, but more controversial aspects of his “big book” were still incomplete, including explicit evidence of humankind’s descent from earlier animals, and exploration of possible causes underlying the development of society and of human mental abilities. He had yet to explain features with no obvious utility other than decorative beauty. His experiments, research and writing continued.
When Darwin’s daughter fell ill, he set aside his experiments with seedlings and domestic animals to accompany her to a seaside resort where he became interested in wild orchids. This developed into an innovative study of how their beautiful flowers served to control insect pollination and ensure cross fertilisation. As with the barnacles, homologous parts served different functions in different species. Back at home, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with experiments on climbing plants. A reverent Ernst Haeckel who had spread a version of Darwinismus in Germany visited him.[106] Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.[107]
Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, the first part of Darwin’s planned “big book” (expanding on his “abstract” published as The Origin of Species), grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out human evolution and sexual selection, and sold briskly despite its size.[108] A further book of evidence, dealing with natural selection in the same style, was largely written, but remained unpublished until transcribed in 1975.[109]
Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin’s death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.
Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin’s death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.
The question of human evolution had been taken up by his supporters (and detractors) shortly after the publication of The Origin of Species,[110] but Darwin’s own contribution to the subject came more than ten years later with the two-volume The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871. In the second volume, Darwin introduced in full his concept of sexual selection to explain the evolution of human culture, the differences between the human sexes, and the differentiation of human races, as well as the beautiful (and seemingly non-adaptive) plumage of birds.[111] A year later Darwin published his last major work, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, which focused on the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. He developed his ideas that the human mind and cultures were developed by natural and sexual selection,[112] an approach which has been revived in the last three decades with the emergence of evolutionary psychology.[113] As he concluded in Descent of Man, Darwin felt that, despite all of humankind’s “noble qualities” and “exalted powers”: “Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.”[114]
His evolution-related experiments and investigations culminated in books on the movement of climbing plants, insectivorous plants, the effects of cross and self fertilisation of plants, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. In his last book, he returned to the effect earthworms have on soil formation.
He died in Downe, Kent, England, on 19 April 1882. He had expected to be buried in St Mary’s churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin’s colleagues, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be given a state funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[115]
Darwin’s children
Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin
Darwin and his eldest son William Erasmus Darwin in 1842.
Darwin’s Children
William Erasmus Darwin (27 December 1839–1914)
Anne Elizabeth Darwin (2 March 1841–22 April 1851)
Mary Eleanor Darwin (23 September 1842–16 October 1842)
Henrietta Emma “Etty” Darwin (25 September 1843–1929)
George Howard Darwin (9 July 1845–7 December 1912)
Elizabeth “Bessy” Darwin (8 July 1847–1926)
Francis Darwin (16 August 1848–19 September 1925)
Leonard Darwin (15 January 1850–26 March 1943)
Horace Darwin (13 May 1851–29 September 1928)
Charles Waring Darwin (6 December 1856–28 June 1858)
The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.[3] Whenever they fell ill he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood. He examined this topic in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of crossing amongst many organisms.[116] Despite his fears, most of the surviving children went on to have distinguished careers as notable members of the prominent Darwin-Wedgwood family.[117]
Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society, distinguished as astronomer,[118] botanist and civil engineer, respectively.[119] His son Leonard, on the other hand, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.[120]
Religious views
For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin's views on religion.
Though Charles Darwin’s family background was Nonconformist, and his father, grandfather and brother were Freethinkers,[121] at first he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible.[122] He attended a Church of England school, then at Cambridge studied Anglican theology to become a clergyman.[123] He was convinced by William Paley’s teleological argument that design in nature proved the existence of God,[124] but during the Beagle voyage he questioned, for example, why deep-ocean plankton had been created with so much beauty for little purpose as no one could see them,[125] or the problem of evil of how the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs could be reconciled with Paley’s vision of beneficent design.[126] He was still quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality, but was critical of the history in the Old Testament.[127]
The 1851 death of Darwin’s daughter, Annie, marked the end of his dwindling faith in Christianity.
The 1851 death of Darwin’s daughter, Annie, marked the end of his dwindling faith in Christianity.
When investigating transmutation of species he knew that his naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order, the kind of radical argument then being used by Dissenters and atheists to attack the Church of England’s privileged position as the established church.[128] Though Darwin wrote of religion as a tribal survival strategy, he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver.[129] His belief dwindled, and his grief at the death of his daughter Annie in 1851 made him more certain in his scepticism.[130] He continued to help the local church with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church.[131] He now thought it better to look at pain and suffering as the result of general laws rather than direct intervention by God.[132] When asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally “an Agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind.”[133]
The “Lady Hope Story”, published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted back to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were refuted by Darwin’s children and have been dismissed as false by historians.[134] His daughter, Henrietta, who was at his deathbed, said that he did not convert to Christianity.[135] His last words were, in fact, directed at Emma: “Remember what a good wife you have been.”[136]
Political interpretations
Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair
Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair
Darwin’s theories and writings, combined with Gregor Mendel’s genetics (the “modern synthesis”
, form the basis of all modern biology.[137] However, Darwin’s fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements which at times had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.
Eugenics
For more details on this topic, see Eugenics.
Following Darwin’s publication of the Origin, his cousin, Francis Galton, applied the concepts to human society, starting in 1865 with ideas to promote “hereditary improvement” which he elaborated at length in 1869.[138] In The Descent of Man Darwin agreed that Galton had demonstrated the probability that “talent” and “genius” in humans was inherited, but dismissed the social changes Galton proposed as too utopian.[139] Neither Galton nor Darwin supported government intervention and thought that, at most, heredity should be taken into consideration by people seeking potential mates.[140] In 1883, after Darwin’s death, Galton began calling his social philosophy Eugenics.[141] In the 20th century, eugenics movements gained popularity in a number of countries and became associated with reproduction control programmes such as compulsory sterilisation laws,[142] then were stigmatised after their usage in the rhetoric of Nazi Germany in its goals of genetic “purity”.[V]
Social Darwinism
For more details on this topic, see Social Darwinism.
The ideas of Thomas Malthus and Herbert Spencer which applied ideas of evolution and “survival of the fittest” to societies, nations and businesses became popular in the late 19th and early 20th century, and were used to defend various, sometimes contradictory, ideological perspectives including laissez-faire economics,[143] colonialism,[144] racism and imperialism.[144] The term “Social Darwinism” originated around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s with Richard Hofstadter’s critique of laissez-faire conservatism.[145] The concepts predate Darwin’s publication of the Origin in 1859:[144][146] Malthus died in 1834[147] and Spencer published his books on economics in 1851 and on evolution in 1855.[148] Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature,[149] and that sympathy should be extended to all races and nations.[150][VI]
Commemoration
Darwin in 1880, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had had an enormous effect on many fields of science.
Darwin in 1880, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had had an enormous effect on many fields of science.
During Darwin’s lifetime, many species and geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin’s prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats,[151] and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin’s 25th birthday.[152] When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin’s friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship’s captain Wickham named Port Darwin.[153] The settlement of Palmerston founded there in 1869 was officially renamed Darwin in 1911. It became the capital city of Australia’s Northern Territory,[153] which also boasts Charles Darwin University[154] and Charles Darwin National Park.[155] Darwin College, Cambridge, founded in 1964, was named in honour of the Darwin family, partially because they owned some of the land it was on.[156]
The 14 species of finches he collected in the Galápagos Islands are affectionately named “Darwin’s finches” in honour of his legacy.[157] In 1992, Darwin was ranked #16 on Michael H. Hart’s list of the most influential figures in history.[158] Darwin came fourth in the 100 Greatest Britons poll sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the public.[159] In 2000 Darwin’s image appeared on the Bank of England ten pound note, replacing Charles Dickens. His impressive, luxuriant beard (which was reportedly difficult to forge) was said to be a contributory factor to the bank’s choice.[160]
As a humorous celebration of evolution, the annual Darwin Award is bestowed on individuals who “improve our gene pool by removing themselves from it.”[161]
Numerous biographies of Darwin have been written, and the 1980 biographical novel The Origin by Irving Stone gives a closely researched fictional account of Darwin’s life from the age of 22 onwards.
Entrance to the exhibition at Royal Ontario Museum.
Entrance to the exhibition at Royal Ontario Museum.
Darwin has been the subject of many exhibitions, including the “Darwin” exhibition, which opened at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City in 2006, traveled to the Field Museum in Chicago, is currently being hosted by The Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto and will open in London in late 2009.[162] The exhibit is part of a series of events celebrating the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of the Origin of Species. Other celebrations include a festival at the University of Cambridge in July 2009, and "Darwin200," a series of events hosted by various British organizations under the auspices of London's Natural History Museum.
There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.[86] Later, Darwin could only recall one review; Professor Haughton of Dublin claimed that “all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old.”[87] Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his “big book”, suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.[88]
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (usually abbreviated to On the Origin of Species) proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[89] In the book, Darwin set out “one long argument” of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.[90] His only allusion to human evolution was the understatement that “light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history”.[91] His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.[92]
He put a strong case for common descent, but avoided the then controversial term “evolution”, and at the end of the book concluded that;
There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.[93]
As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, amusing cariacatures of him with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution.
As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, amusing cariacatures of him with an ape or monkey body symbolised evolution.[94]
Reaction to the publication
For more details on this topic, see Reaction to Darwin's theory.
There was wide public interest in Charles Darwin’s book and a controversy which he monitored closely, keeping press cuttings of reviews, articles, satires, parodies and caricatures.[95] Darwin had carefully said no more than "Light will be thrown on the origin of man",[96] but the first review claimed it made a creed of the “men from monkeys” idea already controversial from Vestiges.[97] Amongst favourable responses Huxley’s reviews included swipes at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow, and when Owen's review appeared it joined others condemning the book.[98]
The Church of England scientific establishment, including Darwin’s old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow, reacted against the book, though it was well received by a younger generation of professional naturalists. In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention away from Darwin. An explanation of higher criticism and other heresies, it included the argument that miracles broke God’s laws, so belief in them was atheistic—and praise for “Mr Darwin’s masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature”.[99]
The most famous confrontation took place at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Professor John William Draper delivered a long lecture about Darwin and social progress, then Samuel Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, argued against Darwin. In the ensuing debate Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin and Thomas Huxley established himself as “Darwin’s bulldog” – the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage. Both sides came away feeling victorious, but Huxley went on to make much of his claim that on being asked by Wilberforce whether he was descended from monkeys on his grandfather’s side or his grandmother’s side, Huxley muttered: “The Lord has delivered him into my hands” and replied that he “would rather be descended from an ape than from a cultivated man who used his gifts of culture and eloquence in the service of prejudice and falsehood”.[100]
Down House Entrance.
Down House Entrance.
Darwin’s illness kept him away from the public debates, though he read eagerly about them and mustered support through correspondence. Asa Gray persuaded a publisher in the United States to pay royalties, and Darwin imported and distributed Gray’s pamphlet Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.[101] In Britain, friends including Hooker[102] and Lyell[103] took part in the scientific debates which Huxley pugnaciously led to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen made the mistake of (wrongly) claiming certain anatomical differences between ape and human brains, and accusing Huxley of advocating “Ape Origin of Man”. Huxley gladly did just that, and his campaign over two years was devastatingly successful in ousting Owen and the “old guard”.[104] Darwin’s friends formed The X Club and helped to gain him the honour of the Royal Society’s Copley Medal in 1864.[103]
Broader public interest had already been stimulated by Vestiges, and the Origin of Species was translated into many languages and went through numerous reprints, becoming a staple scientific text accessible both to a newly curious middle class and to “working men” who flocked to Huxley’s lectures.[105] Darwin’s theory also resonated with various movements at the time[III] and became a key fixture of popular culture.[IV]
Descent of Man, sexual selection, and botany
More detailed articles cover Darwin’s life from Orchids to Variation, from Descent of Man to Emotions and from Insectivorous plants to Worms
Julia Margaret Cameron’s portrait of Darwin
Julia Margaret Cameron’s portrait of Darwin
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin pressed on with his work. He had published an abstract of his theory, but more controversial aspects of his “big book” were still incomplete, including explicit evidence of humankind’s descent from earlier animals, and exploration of possible causes underlying the development of society and of human mental abilities. He had yet to explain features with no obvious utility other than decorative beauty. His experiments, research and writing continued.
When Darwin’s daughter fell ill, he set aside his experiments with seedlings and domestic animals to accompany her to a seaside resort where he became interested in wild orchids. This developed into an innovative study of how their beautiful flowers served to control insect pollination and ensure cross fertilisation. As with the barnacles, homologous parts served different functions in different species. Back at home, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with experiments on climbing plants. A reverent Ernst Haeckel who had spread a version of Darwinismus in Germany visited him.[106] Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.[107]
Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, the first part of Darwin’s planned “big book” (expanding on his “abstract” published as The Origin of Species), grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out human evolution and sexual selection, and sold briskly despite its size.[108] A further book of evidence, dealing with natural selection in the same style, was largely written, but remained unpublished until transcribed in 1975.[109]
Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin’s death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.
Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwin’s death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.
The question of human evolution had been taken up by his supporters (and detractors) shortly after the publication of The Origin of Species,[110] but Darwin’s own contribution to the subject came more than ten years later with the two-volume The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871. In the second volume, Darwin introduced in full his concept of sexual selection to explain the evolution of human culture, the differences between the human sexes, and the differentiation of human races, as well as the beautiful (and seemingly non-adaptive) plumage of birds.[111] A year later Darwin published his last major work, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, which focused on the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. He developed his ideas that the human mind and cultures were developed by natural and sexual selection,[112] an approach which has been revived in the last three decades with the emergence of evolutionary psychology.[113] As he concluded in Descent of Man, Darwin felt that, despite all of humankind’s “noble qualities” and “exalted powers”: “Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.”[114]
His evolution-related experiments and investigations culminated in books on the movement of climbing plants, insectivorous plants, the effects of cross and self fertilisation of plants, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. In his last book, he returned to the effect earthworms have on soil formation.
He died in Downe, Kent, England, on 19 April 1882. He had expected to be buried in St Mary’s churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin’s colleagues, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be given a state funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton.[115]
Darwin’s children
Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin
Darwin and his eldest son William Erasmus Darwin in 1842.
Darwin’s Children
William Erasmus Darwin (27 December 1839–1914)
Anne Elizabeth Darwin (2 March 1841–22 April 1851)
Mary Eleanor Darwin (23 September 1842–16 October 1842)
Henrietta Emma “Etty” Darwin (25 September 1843–1929)
George Howard Darwin (9 July 1845–7 December 1912)
Elizabeth “Bessy” Darwin (8 July 1847–1926)
Francis Darwin (16 August 1848–19 September 1925)
Leonard Darwin (15 January 1850–26 March 1943)
Horace Darwin (13 May 1851–29 September 1928)
Charles Waring Darwin (6 December 1856–28 June 1858)
The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.[3] Whenever they fell ill he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood. He examined this topic in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of crossing amongst many organisms.[116] Despite his fears, most of the surviving children went on to have distinguished careers as notable members of the prominent Darwin-Wedgwood family.[117]
Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society, distinguished as astronomer,[118] botanist and civil engineer, respectively.[119] His son Leonard, on the other hand, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.[120]
Religious views
For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin's views on religion.
Though Charles Darwin’s family background was Nonconformist, and his father, grandfather and brother were Freethinkers,[121] at first he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible.[122] He attended a Church of England school, then at Cambridge studied Anglican theology to become a clergyman.[123] He was convinced by William Paley’s teleological argument that design in nature proved the existence of God,[124] but during the Beagle voyage he questioned, for example, why deep-ocean plankton had been created with so much beauty for little purpose as no one could see them,[125] or the problem of evil of how the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs could be reconciled with Paley’s vision of beneficent design.[126] He was still quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality, but was critical of the history in the Old Testament.[127]
The 1851 death of Darwin’s daughter, Annie, marked the end of his dwindling faith in Christianity.
The 1851 death of Darwin’s daughter, Annie, marked the end of his dwindling faith in Christianity.
When investigating transmutation of species he knew that his naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order, the kind of radical argument then being used by Dissenters and atheists to attack the Church of England’s privileged position as the established church.[128] Though Darwin wrote of religion as a tribal survival strategy, he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver.[129] His belief dwindled, and his grief at the death of his daughter Annie in 1851 made him more certain in his scepticism.[130] He continued to help the local church with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church.[131] He now thought it better to look at pain and suffering as the result of general laws rather than direct intervention by God.[132] When asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally “an Agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind.”[133]
The “Lady Hope Story”, published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted back to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were refuted by Darwin’s children and have been dismissed as false by historians.[134] His daughter, Henrietta, who was at his deathbed, said that he did not convert to Christianity.[135] His last words were, in fact, directed at Emma: “Remember what a good wife you have been.”[136]
Political interpretations
Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair
Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair
Darwin’s theories and writings, combined with Gregor Mendel’s genetics (the “modern synthesis”
, form the basis of all modern biology.[137] However, Darwin’s fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements which at times had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.Eugenics
For more details on this topic, see Eugenics.
Following Darwin’s publication of the Origin, his cousin, Francis Galton, applied the concepts to human society, starting in 1865 with ideas to promote “hereditary improvement” which he elaborated at length in 1869.[138] In The Descent of Man Darwin agreed that Galton had demonstrated the probability that “talent” and “genius” in humans was inherited, but dismissed the social changes Galton proposed as too utopian.[139] Neither Galton nor Darwin supported government intervention and thought that, at most, heredity should be taken into consideration by people seeking potential mates.[140] In 1883, after Darwin’s death, Galton began calling his social philosophy Eugenics.[141] In the 20th century, eugenics movements gained popularity in a number of countries and became associated with reproduction control programmes such as compulsory sterilisation laws,[142] then were stigmatised after their usage in the rhetoric of Nazi Germany in its goals of genetic “purity”.[V]
Social Darwinism
For more details on this topic, see Social Darwinism.
The ideas of Thomas Malthus and Herbert Spencer which applied ideas of evolution and “survival of the fittest” to societies, nations and businesses became popular in the late 19th and early 20th century, and were used to defend various, sometimes contradictory, ideological perspectives including laissez-faire economics,[143] colonialism,[144] racism and imperialism.[144] The term “Social Darwinism” originated around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s with Richard Hofstadter’s critique of laissez-faire conservatism.[145] The concepts predate Darwin’s publication of the Origin in 1859:[144][146] Malthus died in 1834[147] and Spencer published his books on economics in 1851 and on evolution in 1855.[148] Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature,[149] and that sympathy should be extended to all races and nations.[150][VI]
Commemoration
Darwin in 1880, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had had an enormous effect on many fields of science.
Darwin in 1880, still working on his contributions to evolutionary thought that had had an enormous effect on many fields of science.
During Darwin’s lifetime, many species and geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin’s prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats,[151] and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin’s 25th birthday.[152] When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin’s friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship’s captain Wickham named Port Darwin.[153] The settlement of Palmerston founded there in 1869 was officially renamed Darwin in 1911. It became the capital city of Australia’s Northern Territory,[153] which also boasts Charles Darwin University[154] and Charles Darwin National Park.[155] Darwin College, Cambridge, founded in 1964, was named in honour of the Darwin family, partially because they owned some of the land it was on.[156]
The 14 species of finches he collected in the Galápagos Islands are affectionately named “Darwin’s finches” in honour of his legacy.[157] In 1992, Darwin was ranked #16 on Michael H. Hart’s list of the most influential figures in history.[158] Darwin came fourth in the 100 Greatest Britons poll sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the public.[159] In 2000 Darwin’s image appeared on the Bank of England ten pound note, replacing Charles Dickens. His impressive, luxuriant beard (which was reportedly difficult to forge) was said to be a contributory factor to the bank’s choice.[160]
As a humorous celebration of evolution, the annual Darwin Award is bestowed on individuals who “improve our gene pool by removing themselves from it.”[161]
Numerous biographies of Darwin have been written, and the 1980 biographical novel The Origin by Irving Stone gives a closely researched fictional account of Darwin’s life from the age of 22 onwards.
Entrance to the exhibition at Royal Ontario Museum.
Entrance to the exhibition at Royal Ontario Museum.
Darwin has been the subject of many exhibitions, including the “Darwin” exhibition, which opened at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City in 2006, traveled to the Field Museum in Chicago, is currently being hosted by The Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto and will open in London in late 2009.[162] The exhibit is part of a series of events celebrating the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of the Origin of Species. Other celebrations include a festival at the University of Cambridge in July 2009, and "Darwin200," a series of events hosted by various British organizations under the auspices of London's Natural History Museum.
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