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Stancke
Legacy Member
Tracking the Elusive Human, Vol. 2
Chapter 2: The Use of Psychological Types
With the publication of Psychological Types the terms introversion and extraversion came into general use and the book found three distinct audiences.
First, non-Jungian psychologists attempted to create written instruments to measure introversion and extraversion (while they ignored the four functions): Freyd (1924), Heidbreder (1926), Conklin (1923), Guthrie (1927), Campbell (1929), Ball (1932), etc. J.A. Browne has called this the early metric stage which was then followed by the more advanced metric stage of factor studies by Guilford, Cattell and Eysenck. This level has, in its turn, been superseded by what we may call the supermetric in which enormously complex analyses of questionnaires yield matrixes of 300 x 300 or 600 x 600 items which demand the use of sophisticated computers. This is a current of thought we will encounter only in passing.
The second audience for psychological types is in the circle of Jungian analysts. For example, Beatrice Hinkle, one of the first New York Jungians who had introduced Jung to America apart from Freud by translating his Transformations and Symbols of the Libido, described what she called objective, simple and subjective introverts and extraverts in her 1923, The Recreating of the Individual: A Study of Psychological Types and Their Relation to Wholeness. (Henderson, p. 11) Another early Jungian analyst in the United States, James Oppenheim, wrote a book which appeared in 1931 entitled, American Types. It tried to put types in an American perspective and made an attempt to develop a physiognomy of the types based on an equation of facial features with the various Jungian types.
The third audience were the creators and users of distinctively Jungian psychological type tests. And it is these last two groups that we will examine in this chapter.
Typology in Professional Jungian Circles
It would be easy to assume that the process of becoming a Jungian analyst would, by itself, produce a typological expert. This is not the case. It could, and does so in some instances, but it does not have to. Individuation seen from the point of view of the collective unconscious is not identical with individuation seen from the perspective of the different kinds of consciousnesses. The experience of one does not automatically confer the experience of the other, though the training that the analyst undergoes could easily blossom into a penetrating typological understanding.
In 1972 Plaut reported on the results of a survey of 173 analysts. He found that about half (53%) of the analysts found typology helpful in their analytic practice, and this total was arrived at by combining those who thought it often helpful with those who thought it was sometimes helpful. Three-quarters of the analysts were confident of their type, and three quarters thought it important in general psychology. These results confirm the fact that typology and the actual experience of analytical psychology are not identical, and they can also be interpreted to mean that since a greater number of analysts saw a role for types in general psychology than saw one in their own practice, there is something or some things in the analytical process that discouraged the use of typology. There are a number of possibilities of what these things might be:
1. Types have an easy affinity for explaining interpersonal relationships, while most analytic work is directed to the individual.
2. Creativity and neurosis, both common in those being analyzed, and both bringing up material from all parts of the psyche, make type recognition more difficult. If types have an affinity for interpersonal relationships, they also have a certain predilection for normalcy.
3. Types cannot be employed unless they are learned, and training analyses and the various lectures of the training program may or may not contain type material.
4. It is extremely difficult to understand types intrapsychically and explore their continuing relationship with the process of individuation. Even though Jung had to work out typology as his compass on the voyage of individuation, he did not spend much energy illustrating how situations within analysis could be understood typologically.
It is this last point that is critical for the future use of typology in analysis. Meier clearly presents the issue when, following one of Jung's early seminars, he draws a typological diagram in which both analyst and analysand are represented as circles or typological mandalas. He feels that it is important that the analyst be able to rotate his typological mandala "so as to produce a tension of opposites with regard to the system of the analysand, so that something really can happen and things can really be constellated and problems can really come to a head." ("Psychological Types and Individuation", p. 282-3) In this way he brings to life within the analytical situation his statement: "Individuation begins and ends with typology." (p. 276)
These perceptive comments of Meier were taken up by C.J. Groesbeck and combined with other indications in Jungian literature and given a more detailed and thorough development in his "Psychological Types in the Analysis of the Transference". This paper represents one of the most penetrating explanations of the dynamic nature of typology. Groesbeck carefully examines Psychological Types, especially Chapter II, and explores its implications by using types as a guide to the "vicissitudes of the transference on the way to individuation." (p. 31)
"Via types, one has available a virtually forgotten compass to indicate what is happening within the patient, between patient and analyst, and within the analyst in the moment-to-moment, session-to-session progress of analysis." (p. 30)
He demonstrates what this "analytical psychotypology" is in the concrete by taking up the diagram used by Meier, and before him by Jung, and using it to explain actual case material. In this way it becomes much more comprehensible why certain projections take place, what the most promising pathway to development is, and even what the strengths and weaknesses of the analyst are in relationship to this particular- patient. Instead of seeing the analyst's particular typological weakness as a defect to be hidden, Groesbeck sees it as a golden opportunity for both the analyst and the analysand:
"Could it be that in precisely acknowledging the failure of the analysis, the door to the inferior functions can be opened to the archetypal levels of the psyche and the symbol of the inner healer can be constellated out of the uniting of the inferior functions of both analyst and patient?" (p. 41-2)
The dynamic role of the inferior function as the gateway to the unconscious and the self is seen in relationship to both analyst and analysand, and it is out of the union of their inferior functions that can come the fifth or transcendent function in which the former typological struggles can be resolved. In this connection he quotes Jung to point out that the transcendent function is not to be understood as "a basic function but as a complex function made up of other functions" (p. 42), and demonstrates how the inferior functions unite by undertaking the extensive analysis of an actual case. This is a view of the actual working of the inferior function that we should keep in mind when we later come across the question of bi-polarity.
Another good example of types taken dynamically and within analysis can be seen in John Beebe's "Psychological Types in Transference, Countertransference and the Therapeutic Interaction", which we will look at in the next chapter. Unfortunately, typological work within analysis is all too rare and much more attention should be paid to it within Jungian circles.
Type Diagnosis
This short excursion into typology within analysis, far from being esoteric, is an ideal preparation for examining the most practical of all questions in typology, that of type diagnosis. How can I determine my own or someone else's type? Types viewed from the point of view of individuation give us a better idea of the complexity of the meeting of two typological beings. When I meet you I receive a highly complicated mass of impressions. I don't just see the superior function and its attitude, but rather, I am receiving many messages simultaneously and I must find some way of organizing them. I am picking up information about all the functions and both attitudes and their respective states of development, and I am receiving this information in its concrete embodiment in individual words and events. It is from this matrix that I must abstract my typological perceptions. Typology does not relieve me of the need to be in direct contact with the individual. Far from it. It is a guide or compass in making sense of the individual impressions I receive. I don't impose it on the material, but I use it to organize the material that is already present. This is what Jung was insisting upon in' his various Forwards to Psychological Types. And much too often we underestimate the complexity of this material. I see your functions and attitudes and their state of development, but also the influence of your parents, education, the society you live in, the kind of work you do, the degree of your overall psychic integration, and the winds of your creativity in this moment, and habitually, which allow you, or even compel you, to show different sides of your personality.
But even this is a simplification, for I am only considering you and not myself. It would be more accurate to say the level of complexity must be doubled. Each impression I receive from you can be directed to various aspects of my own personality and provoke responses that condition my reception depending on my own type and its development, as well as its proclivities for projection, etc. Thus, Jung insists that without an understanding of my own personal equation I will scramble the messages and confuse what you are like with the way I imagine you to be. We could even try to describe the situation at a third level of complexity in which your words and actions provoke responses in me which, in turn, make you modify how you are relating to me, which, in turn, effects my reactions, and so forth and so on. But enough has been said to form the necessary backdrop against which to view the whole question of type diagnosis. It is also interesting to realize that over the years when Jung received letters about the question of types, he would insist, almost perversely at times, on their complexity. And this tendency came, I think, from his own keen understanding of how complex the whole matter is and how superficial some of our uses of typology have been.
The complexity of type can help us understand, for example, why we can type some people almost immediately and have our estimate confirmed by extensive contact, and then turn around and draw a complete blank with other people, or actually mistype them. We have our particular blind spots, and the people who we are typing can be setting off projections in us that effectively overwhelm the other impressions that we may be receiving about them. Or these people may be relatively undifferentiated or neurotic, and bewilder us with their perplexing barrage of material. Sometimes we make mistakes about those closest to us, or even ourselves, precisely because we are receiving material from all parts of the personality, and have not been able to adequately integrate it. The complexity of type precludes any easy solution to the question of type diagnosis. It would be nice to be able to appeal to the diagnostic powers of the Jungian analyst, but as we have seen, typological knowledge, especially in the practical order, is not identical with an understanding of the process of individuation. A. Plaut makes this clear in a description of his own tribulations:
"My former analyst thought that I could either be an intuitive- feeling type or possibly a thinking sensation type. Before I filled in my questionnaire, I had been diagnosed by one highly intuitive senior colleague as a sensation type. Another senior analyst told me that I was a thinking type. (Could it be that the inferior function easily appears in the form of shadow projections, thus clouding our clinical judgments?) A third colleague thought that I was an intuitive-thinking type. Being therefore uncertain I did the Gray-Wheelwright test and came out as 'intuitive-thinking' (introvert). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, scored by a colleague, turned up quite unequivocally: INFP (introverted feeling perceptive with intuition, for short: introverted, feeling-intuition). As I dare not assume that I am fully integrated, I still prefer to rate myself as 'not sufficiently confident'. ("Analytical Psychologists and Psychological Types", P. 144)
It is this kind of diagnostic deadlock that has played a role in the creation of type tests and in attempts to put the whole issue of human differences on what would appear to be more secure scientific foundations. This brings us to our third audience for Jung's Psychological Types, the type test creators and users. And it is important to realize that the country we are entering differs from the analyst's consulting room. It belongs to another watershed. And this fact will become more and more apparent as we go on.
Psychological Type Tests
There are three major type tests that attempt to determine both attitude and function: the Gray-Wheelwright, the Myers-Briggs and the Singer-Loomis. (There are also experimental tests developed by Detloff, and Kingsbury and Skinner, etc.)
The Gray-Wheelwright
This test was developed by Joseph Wheelwright and Horace Gray. Wheelwright, one of the original San Francisco Jungians, had been initially attracted to Jungian psychology by typology, for he saw how useful it had been in his own marriage. He describes the origin of the test:
"Now, this type-test that I mentioned is a thing that Horace Gray and I spent a very long time working on during the war. And we involved Janie and, to a lesser extent, Joe Henderson in our struggles. Gray and I were actually perfect for the job, because I was an extraverted-intuitive-feeling type, and he was an introverted-sensation-thinking type; we figured that between us, we added up to one and we ought to be able to do it. So, we sat around, dreaming up questions. Feeling that charity began at home, the questions arose from our own conditions, as it were; then they were subjected to all kinds of testing out on people that had already been diagnosed clinically. Horace, who was a good mathematician, had stumbled on something that scientists seem to think a great deal of, called chi-square. This always made me very nervous, I don't know what chi-square means, and I'm determined that I never shall know. But he used it all the time, which apparently made the questions quite respectable." ("Psychological Types", p. 3)
All the participants in the creation of this test were Jungian analysts, and since it first appeared in 1944 it has gone through a series of revisions. The 15th of these revisions consists of 81 questions, all arranged in a forced-choice format where the test taker must choose between extraversion and introversion, thinking and feeling, and sensation and intuition.
The initial use of the test generated a series of articles by Horace Gray, some of which were co-authored by Joseph Wheelwright. In "Jung's Psychological Types, Their Frequency of Occurrence", Gray and Wheelwright review some of the data generated by early questionnaires that had been developed to test introversion and extraversion. And then they look at the results of the first 200 people to take their own test, and find that introversion outweighs extraversion 54% to 46%. In "Jung's Psychological Types in Relation to Occupation, Race and Body Build", Gray describes their motivation in creating the test and how it should be employed.
"The difficulties found by many in classifying individuals, even with the aid of his stout volume on psychological types, led us three years ago to devise a questionnaire covering all three aspects: attitude, perception, judgment. Trials and errors have led to repeated revisions, and even after a dozen such, more must follow. A questionnaire makes no pretense of replacing psychiatric interviews, much less any deeper psychological analysis, but it is a device for diagnosis." (p. 100)
With 1,000 test results in hand, they again found introversion 54% and extraversion 46%. Their results on the relationship between physical type and psychological type will occupy us later.
In "Jung's Psychological Types and Marriage" they studied 60 couples and found that 33% of them differed on all three measures, that is, extraversion-introversion, thinking-feeling and sensation-intuition. 30% differed in 2 measures, 27% in one, and 10% were alike in all three. They also plotted an intriguing balance:
"...if one partner is extremely marked for feeling valuations, the other partner is not merely on the thinking side, but is near its extreme. Or, if one is moderately feeling, the other is apt to be only moderately thinking. The same balancing was found for introversion vs. extraversion, and for sensation vs. intuition; ... This choice of spouse, with amazingly quantitative strength of complement, must, in consequence of popular ignorance of this phenomenon, be unconscious." (p. 38-9)
In "Jung's Psychological Types: Ambiguous Scores and Their Interpretation", various difficulties in administering the test and interpreting their results are examined. True to his statement that the tests do not stand alone, Gray places them in a wider context. For example, the test results of 62 people are compared with evaluating interviews presumably given by Gray and Wheelwright themselves. In 52% of the cases all three basic judgments agree, leaving 48% in which there is a disagreement in one or more areas. The biggest discrepancy was in the area of introversion and extraversion. When exploring how answers on one of the measures can effect another, Gray describes extraverts who, when asked "How many friends do you have?", answer, "Few", if their thinking function is strong. And he describes introverts who talk so profusely that they give the impression of extraversion. Both of these keen observations demonstrate the amount of clinical experience that was the foundation for the test.
The Gray-Wheelwright test has been subjected to a factor-analytic evaluation by Baumann, Angst, Henne and Muser, who concluded that the extraversion-introversion scale was the most reliable, followed by the intuition-sensation, with the thinking- feeling faring poorly.
Mary Ann Mattoon in her Jungian Psychology in Perspective summarizes some other studies evaluating the Gray-Wheelwright. These include a split-half reliability study, another that relied on test-retest and validity against the criterion of self-typing, and studies by Bradway, and Bradway and Detloff, who compared the self-typing of Jungian analysts with their results on the Gray-Wheelwright Test. These last two studies will engage our attention later.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
This is the most widely used of the full Jungian type tests, with a million answer sheets distributed by the end of 1979. It has appeared in various formats. Form F, for example, contains 166 questions, all of which are forced-choice and which include a number of word pairs, for example, which word would appeal to you more: active or intellectual? Once again the test had its origin in the practical circumstances of the test creator's marriage. When Isabel Briggs-Myers brought her prospective husband home, her mother, Katharine Briggs, concluded he was not like the other members of the family.
"She embarked on a project of reading biographies, and developed her own typology based on patterns she found. She identified meditative types, spontaneous types, executive types and sociable types (later identified in the MBT1 as the I's, the EP's, the ETJ's and the EFJ's). When Katharine Briggs discovered C.G. Jung's book, Psychological Types, she reported to her daughter, "This is it!" and proceeded to study the book intensely. Mother and daughter became avid "type watchers" over the next twenty years." (MBTI News, Vol. 2, No. 4, p. 2)
From these beginnings the test slowly evolved over the course of 40 years, with Myers testing thousands of school children, and medical students. In 1962 Educational Testing Services published a research version. In 1975 Consulting Psychologist Press brought out a version for general use, and it has spread widely since then. In the 1970s Isabel Myers worked with Mary McCaulley developing a Center for Applications of Psychological Type with its library, data bank, publications, and a mailing list of over 16,000 names. The Association for Psychological Types now has over 2,000 members in 10 countries. It is involved in publishing the Bulletin of Psychological Types and the journal of Psychological Types, holds national MBTI conferences, and so forth.
There has been an ever growing amount of literature about the use of this test. Let's pause for a moment and examine some examples of it to get its flavor.
James Hart, addressing himself to the question, "Are theoretical and methodological orientation an expression of psychology majors' personalities?", gave the MBTI and the theoretical orientation survey to 181 junior and senior psychology majors. He found that an objective orientation was related to high scores in extraversion, sensing, thinking and judging, while high scores in their opposites indicated a subjective orientation.
Alida Westman and Francis Canter in "Relationship Between Certain Circadian Behavior Patterns and Jungian Personality Types" had 24 adults rate themselves every two hours during the day on physical activity, concentration, and sociability, and gave these people the MBTI. Extraverts reported becoming more sociable from approximately 10 a.m. to noon to 2 p.m. and decreasing in their ability to concentrate between noon and 2 p.m. when they reported feeling happy, sociable and more relaxed.
In a more ambitious study John Ross compared the four scales of the MBTI with a battery of 32 different tests in 571 high school students. The first and most obvious factor that he derived, he felt, was one of general ability most manifest in a vocabulary test and also present negatively in the sensation-intuition scale. In another form of analysis he related liking to think with ENTJ, business information with ENTP, and gregariousness with ESFP.
In "Studies of Jungian Typology II: Representations of the Personal World" Rae Carlson, building on earlier work that found type differences in the performance of tasks involving short-term memory, the judgment of facial expressions and volunteer service, found: 1. the introverted thinking type and the extraverted feeling type differ in the quality of their affective memory; 2. thinking and feeling types differ in their emphasis on cognitive clarity vs. vividness of feeling; 3. sensation and intuitive types differ in their styles of self- description offered to an imagined foreign correspondent. In the last case the intuitives made direct or indirect references to the imagined other, while the sensing types introduced themselves in terms of their physical appearance.
James Witzig in "Jung's Typology and Classification of the Psychotherapies" tested 102 public health workers in such a way as to generate information about their own type preferences and how they would assign different hypothetical clients to different kinds of therapy. His questionnaire was based on items from the MBTI and generated results that supported his typological classification of therapies. In this classification:
"The individual approach is regarded as introversive and the group modality as extraversive. Psychotherapies are additionally classified according to function type: Thinking = Informational cognitive - includes educational, psychoanalytic, transactional and rational-emotive therapies; Intuition = Symbolic/intuitive -includes Jungian analysis, transcendental meditation and fantasy dominated procedures; Sensation = Sensory/experiential - includes Gestalt, bio-energetic, behavior modification, and most occupational therapies; Feeling = Confrontational/conative - includes psychodrama, client-centred and encounter methods." (P. 329)
Mattoon, in her Jungian Psychology in Perspective, concisely summarizes any number of studies which employ the MBTI. They include: changes in introversion and extraversion with age, whether friends are more similar or dissimilar in type, what types tend to marry each other, and how different types react in groups.
She also summarizes a number of studies that compare the MBTI with other introversion-extraversion tests, do split-half correlations, and other sorts of testing of the test similar to but more extensive to those that have accumulated around the GrayWheelwright Test.
A study by Stricker and Ross, "An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian Personality Typology", turned up basically negative results when it found that the indicator scores did not have bimodal distributions and lacked other statistical attributes that they would have expected to accompany the existence of dichotomist types. The new edition of the MBTI Manual, A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 1985, presents extensive information on attempts to test the validity of the MBTI.
The manual provides extensive comparisons between the MBTI and many other inventories including the Eysenck Personality Questionnaires, the Jungian Type Survey, the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), Allport, Vernon and Lindsay's Study of Values, and the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. The MBTI has found extensive use in school and business settings. (Moore, Keirsey and Bates, Lawrence, etc.)
This small sampling is dwarfed by the CAPT printout of MBTI studies which, when last I looked, contained over 1,100 items. Gille-Maisani briefly reviews dozens of studies on extraversion and introversion and psychological types in his Types de Jung et temp�raments psychobiologiques.
The Singer-Loomis Inventory of Personality
This is the work of two Jungian analysts, June Singer and Mary Loomis. It is not only the newest of the tests, but it is structured differently, for it does not make the assumption that the three measures of extraversion-introversion, thinking- feeling and sensation-intuition must be opposed to each other. The experimental edition has 120 questions grouped around 15 situations, and each question can be answered on a scale from I (never) to 5 (always). Situation 1, for example, states: "I have a free day coming up this week and will be able to do whatever I want. I would..." and then proceeds to name 8 possibilities, each to be answered on a scale from 1 to 5.
The 8 psychological types are viewed as independent cognitive modes, and the test attempts to measure their relative development in the individual. Since one type of development is not assumed to exclude another, the manual describes people with, for example, both introverted intuition and extraverted sensation highly developed. We will return to the question of bi-polarity when we look at new developments in the field of Jungian typology.
The development of these type tests and their application demonstrate the outward trajectory that Psychological Types has been following since its publication. The tests have arisen in large part in response to the diagnostic question, and they have given prominence to the interpersonal nature of types and brought Jung's ideas into the realm of the experimental psychologists.
Interpersonal Nature of Types
Outside professional Jungian circles it is clear that the interpersonal nature of types holds center stage, and there is no question that this kind of development is legitimate. We have seen the interpersonal interactions that helped Jung formulate his typology, and he, himself, used them to help explain to his patients their family conflicts. Typology is finding a fertile field of application in everything from marriage counseling to vocational guidance, and more people are probably being introduced to Jungian psychology through typology, especially in the form of type tests, than in any other way. Types are ideally formulated for dealing with normal people who will never see the inside of an analyst's office, but are in dire need of some way to make sense of the relationships they are involved in.
As positive as the development of this aspect of typology is, and despite the enthusiastic reception it is receiving in many quarters, it is important to look beyond these new and exciting beginnings and try to discern potential storm clouds forming on the far horizon.
Chapter 2: The Use of Psychological Types
With the publication of Psychological Types the terms introversion and extraversion came into general use and the book found three distinct audiences.
First, non-Jungian psychologists attempted to create written instruments to measure introversion and extraversion (while they ignored the four functions): Freyd (1924), Heidbreder (1926), Conklin (1923), Guthrie (1927), Campbell (1929), Ball (1932), etc. J.A. Browne has called this the early metric stage which was then followed by the more advanced metric stage of factor studies by Guilford, Cattell and Eysenck. This level has, in its turn, been superseded by what we may call the supermetric in which enormously complex analyses of questionnaires yield matrixes of 300 x 300 or 600 x 600 items which demand the use of sophisticated computers. This is a current of thought we will encounter only in passing.
The second audience for psychological types is in the circle of Jungian analysts. For example, Beatrice Hinkle, one of the first New York Jungians who had introduced Jung to America apart from Freud by translating his Transformations and Symbols of the Libido, described what she called objective, simple and subjective introverts and extraverts in her 1923, The Recreating of the Individual: A Study of Psychological Types and Their Relation to Wholeness. (Henderson, p. 11) Another early Jungian analyst in the United States, James Oppenheim, wrote a book which appeared in 1931 entitled, American Types. It tried to put types in an American perspective and made an attempt to develop a physiognomy of the types based on an equation of facial features with the various Jungian types.
The third audience were the creators and users of distinctively Jungian psychological type tests. And it is these last two groups that we will examine in this chapter.
Typology in Professional Jungian Circles
It would be easy to assume that the process of becoming a Jungian analyst would, by itself, produce a typological expert. This is not the case. It could, and does so in some instances, but it does not have to. Individuation seen from the point of view of the collective unconscious is not identical with individuation seen from the perspective of the different kinds of consciousnesses. The experience of one does not automatically confer the experience of the other, though the training that the analyst undergoes could easily blossom into a penetrating typological understanding.
In 1972 Plaut reported on the results of a survey of 173 analysts. He found that about half (53%) of the analysts found typology helpful in their analytic practice, and this total was arrived at by combining those who thought it often helpful with those who thought it was sometimes helpful. Three-quarters of the analysts were confident of their type, and three quarters thought it important in general psychology. These results confirm the fact that typology and the actual experience of analytical psychology are not identical, and they can also be interpreted to mean that since a greater number of analysts saw a role for types in general psychology than saw one in their own practice, there is something or some things in the analytical process that discouraged the use of typology. There are a number of possibilities of what these things might be:
1. Types have an easy affinity for explaining interpersonal relationships, while most analytic work is directed to the individual.
2. Creativity and neurosis, both common in those being analyzed, and both bringing up material from all parts of the psyche, make type recognition more difficult. If types have an affinity for interpersonal relationships, they also have a certain predilection for normalcy.
3. Types cannot be employed unless they are learned, and training analyses and the various lectures of the training program may or may not contain type material.
4. It is extremely difficult to understand types intrapsychically and explore their continuing relationship with the process of individuation. Even though Jung had to work out typology as his compass on the voyage of individuation, he did not spend much energy illustrating how situations within analysis could be understood typologically.
It is this last point that is critical for the future use of typology in analysis. Meier clearly presents the issue when, following one of Jung's early seminars, he draws a typological diagram in which both analyst and analysand are represented as circles or typological mandalas. He feels that it is important that the analyst be able to rotate his typological mandala "so as to produce a tension of opposites with regard to the system of the analysand, so that something really can happen and things can really be constellated and problems can really come to a head." ("Psychological Types and Individuation", p. 282-3) In this way he brings to life within the analytical situation his statement: "Individuation begins and ends with typology." (p. 276)
These perceptive comments of Meier were taken up by C.J. Groesbeck and combined with other indications in Jungian literature and given a more detailed and thorough development in his "Psychological Types in the Analysis of the Transference". This paper represents one of the most penetrating explanations of the dynamic nature of typology. Groesbeck carefully examines Psychological Types, especially Chapter II, and explores its implications by using types as a guide to the "vicissitudes of the transference on the way to individuation." (p. 31)
"Via types, one has available a virtually forgotten compass to indicate what is happening within the patient, between patient and analyst, and within the analyst in the moment-to-moment, session-to-session progress of analysis." (p. 30)
He demonstrates what this "analytical psychotypology" is in the concrete by taking up the diagram used by Meier, and before him by Jung, and using it to explain actual case material. In this way it becomes much more comprehensible why certain projections take place, what the most promising pathway to development is, and even what the strengths and weaknesses of the analyst are in relationship to this particular- patient. Instead of seeing the analyst's particular typological weakness as a defect to be hidden, Groesbeck sees it as a golden opportunity for both the analyst and the analysand:
"Could it be that in precisely acknowledging the failure of the analysis, the door to the inferior functions can be opened to the archetypal levels of the psyche and the symbol of the inner healer can be constellated out of the uniting of the inferior functions of both analyst and patient?" (p. 41-2)
The dynamic role of the inferior function as the gateway to the unconscious and the self is seen in relationship to both analyst and analysand, and it is out of the union of their inferior functions that can come the fifth or transcendent function in which the former typological struggles can be resolved. In this connection he quotes Jung to point out that the transcendent function is not to be understood as "a basic function but as a complex function made up of other functions" (p. 42), and demonstrates how the inferior functions unite by undertaking the extensive analysis of an actual case. This is a view of the actual working of the inferior function that we should keep in mind when we later come across the question of bi-polarity.
Another good example of types taken dynamically and within analysis can be seen in John Beebe's "Psychological Types in Transference, Countertransference and the Therapeutic Interaction", which we will look at in the next chapter. Unfortunately, typological work within analysis is all too rare and much more attention should be paid to it within Jungian circles.
Type Diagnosis
This short excursion into typology within analysis, far from being esoteric, is an ideal preparation for examining the most practical of all questions in typology, that of type diagnosis. How can I determine my own or someone else's type? Types viewed from the point of view of individuation give us a better idea of the complexity of the meeting of two typological beings. When I meet you I receive a highly complicated mass of impressions. I don't just see the superior function and its attitude, but rather, I am receiving many messages simultaneously and I must find some way of organizing them. I am picking up information about all the functions and both attitudes and their respective states of development, and I am receiving this information in its concrete embodiment in individual words and events. It is from this matrix that I must abstract my typological perceptions. Typology does not relieve me of the need to be in direct contact with the individual. Far from it. It is a guide or compass in making sense of the individual impressions I receive. I don't impose it on the material, but I use it to organize the material that is already present. This is what Jung was insisting upon in' his various Forwards to Psychological Types. And much too often we underestimate the complexity of this material. I see your functions and attitudes and their state of development, but also the influence of your parents, education, the society you live in, the kind of work you do, the degree of your overall psychic integration, and the winds of your creativity in this moment, and habitually, which allow you, or even compel you, to show different sides of your personality.
But even this is a simplification, for I am only considering you and not myself. It would be more accurate to say the level of complexity must be doubled. Each impression I receive from you can be directed to various aspects of my own personality and provoke responses that condition my reception depending on my own type and its development, as well as its proclivities for projection, etc. Thus, Jung insists that without an understanding of my own personal equation I will scramble the messages and confuse what you are like with the way I imagine you to be. We could even try to describe the situation at a third level of complexity in which your words and actions provoke responses in me which, in turn, make you modify how you are relating to me, which, in turn, effects my reactions, and so forth and so on. But enough has been said to form the necessary backdrop against which to view the whole question of type diagnosis. It is also interesting to realize that over the years when Jung received letters about the question of types, he would insist, almost perversely at times, on their complexity. And this tendency came, I think, from his own keen understanding of how complex the whole matter is and how superficial some of our uses of typology have been.
The complexity of type can help us understand, for example, why we can type some people almost immediately and have our estimate confirmed by extensive contact, and then turn around and draw a complete blank with other people, or actually mistype them. We have our particular blind spots, and the people who we are typing can be setting off projections in us that effectively overwhelm the other impressions that we may be receiving about them. Or these people may be relatively undifferentiated or neurotic, and bewilder us with their perplexing barrage of material. Sometimes we make mistakes about those closest to us, or even ourselves, precisely because we are receiving material from all parts of the personality, and have not been able to adequately integrate it. The complexity of type precludes any easy solution to the question of type diagnosis. It would be nice to be able to appeal to the diagnostic powers of the Jungian analyst, but as we have seen, typological knowledge, especially in the practical order, is not identical with an understanding of the process of individuation. A. Plaut makes this clear in a description of his own tribulations:
"My former analyst thought that I could either be an intuitive- feeling type or possibly a thinking sensation type. Before I filled in my questionnaire, I had been diagnosed by one highly intuitive senior colleague as a sensation type. Another senior analyst told me that I was a thinking type. (Could it be that the inferior function easily appears in the form of shadow projections, thus clouding our clinical judgments?) A third colleague thought that I was an intuitive-thinking type. Being therefore uncertain I did the Gray-Wheelwright test and came out as 'intuitive-thinking' (introvert). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, scored by a colleague, turned up quite unequivocally: INFP (introverted feeling perceptive with intuition, for short: introverted, feeling-intuition). As I dare not assume that I am fully integrated, I still prefer to rate myself as 'not sufficiently confident'. ("Analytical Psychologists and Psychological Types", P. 144)
It is this kind of diagnostic deadlock that has played a role in the creation of type tests and in attempts to put the whole issue of human differences on what would appear to be more secure scientific foundations. This brings us to our third audience for Jung's Psychological Types, the type test creators and users. And it is important to realize that the country we are entering differs from the analyst's consulting room. It belongs to another watershed. And this fact will become more and more apparent as we go on.
Psychological Type Tests
There are three major type tests that attempt to determine both attitude and function: the Gray-Wheelwright, the Myers-Briggs and the Singer-Loomis. (There are also experimental tests developed by Detloff, and Kingsbury and Skinner, etc.)
The Gray-Wheelwright
This test was developed by Joseph Wheelwright and Horace Gray. Wheelwright, one of the original San Francisco Jungians, had been initially attracted to Jungian psychology by typology, for he saw how useful it had been in his own marriage. He describes the origin of the test:
"Now, this type-test that I mentioned is a thing that Horace Gray and I spent a very long time working on during the war. And we involved Janie and, to a lesser extent, Joe Henderson in our struggles. Gray and I were actually perfect for the job, because I was an extraverted-intuitive-feeling type, and he was an introverted-sensation-thinking type; we figured that between us, we added up to one and we ought to be able to do it. So, we sat around, dreaming up questions. Feeling that charity began at home, the questions arose from our own conditions, as it were; then they were subjected to all kinds of testing out on people that had already been diagnosed clinically. Horace, who was a good mathematician, had stumbled on something that scientists seem to think a great deal of, called chi-square. This always made me very nervous, I don't know what chi-square means, and I'm determined that I never shall know. But he used it all the time, which apparently made the questions quite respectable." ("Psychological Types", p. 3)
All the participants in the creation of this test were Jungian analysts, and since it first appeared in 1944 it has gone through a series of revisions. The 15th of these revisions consists of 81 questions, all arranged in a forced-choice format where the test taker must choose between extraversion and introversion, thinking and feeling, and sensation and intuition.
The initial use of the test generated a series of articles by Horace Gray, some of which were co-authored by Joseph Wheelwright. In "Jung's Psychological Types, Their Frequency of Occurrence", Gray and Wheelwright review some of the data generated by early questionnaires that had been developed to test introversion and extraversion. And then they look at the results of the first 200 people to take their own test, and find that introversion outweighs extraversion 54% to 46%. In "Jung's Psychological Types in Relation to Occupation, Race and Body Build", Gray describes their motivation in creating the test and how it should be employed.
"The difficulties found by many in classifying individuals, even with the aid of his stout volume on psychological types, led us three years ago to devise a questionnaire covering all three aspects: attitude, perception, judgment. Trials and errors have led to repeated revisions, and even after a dozen such, more must follow. A questionnaire makes no pretense of replacing psychiatric interviews, much less any deeper psychological analysis, but it is a device for diagnosis." (p. 100)
With 1,000 test results in hand, they again found introversion 54% and extraversion 46%. Their results on the relationship between physical type and psychological type will occupy us later.
In "Jung's Psychological Types and Marriage" they studied 60 couples and found that 33% of them differed on all three measures, that is, extraversion-introversion, thinking-feeling and sensation-intuition. 30% differed in 2 measures, 27% in one, and 10% were alike in all three. They also plotted an intriguing balance:
"...if one partner is extremely marked for feeling valuations, the other partner is not merely on the thinking side, but is near its extreme. Or, if one is moderately feeling, the other is apt to be only moderately thinking. The same balancing was found for introversion vs. extraversion, and for sensation vs. intuition; ... This choice of spouse, with amazingly quantitative strength of complement, must, in consequence of popular ignorance of this phenomenon, be unconscious." (p. 38-9)
In "Jung's Psychological Types: Ambiguous Scores and Their Interpretation", various difficulties in administering the test and interpreting their results are examined. True to his statement that the tests do not stand alone, Gray places them in a wider context. For example, the test results of 62 people are compared with evaluating interviews presumably given by Gray and Wheelwright themselves. In 52% of the cases all three basic judgments agree, leaving 48% in which there is a disagreement in one or more areas. The biggest discrepancy was in the area of introversion and extraversion. When exploring how answers on one of the measures can effect another, Gray describes extraverts who, when asked "How many friends do you have?", answer, "Few", if their thinking function is strong. And he describes introverts who talk so profusely that they give the impression of extraversion. Both of these keen observations demonstrate the amount of clinical experience that was the foundation for the test.
The Gray-Wheelwright test has been subjected to a factor-analytic evaluation by Baumann, Angst, Henne and Muser, who concluded that the extraversion-introversion scale was the most reliable, followed by the intuition-sensation, with the thinking- feeling faring poorly.
Mary Ann Mattoon in her Jungian Psychology in Perspective summarizes some other studies evaluating the Gray-Wheelwright. These include a split-half reliability study, another that relied on test-retest and validity against the criterion of self-typing, and studies by Bradway, and Bradway and Detloff, who compared the self-typing of Jungian analysts with their results on the Gray-Wheelwright Test. These last two studies will engage our attention later.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
This is the most widely used of the full Jungian type tests, with a million answer sheets distributed by the end of 1979. It has appeared in various formats. Form F, for example, contains 166 questions, all of which are forced-choice and which include a number of word pairs, for example, which word would appeal to you more: active or intellectual? Once again the test had its origin in the practical circumstances of the test creator's marriage. When Isabel Briggs-Myers brought her prospective husband home, her mother, Katharine Briggs, concluded he was not like the other members of the family.
"She embarked on a project of reading biographies, and developed her own typology based on patterns she found. She identified meditative types, spontaneous types, executive types and sociable types (later identified in the MBT1 as the I's, the EP's, the ETJ's and the EFJ's). When Katharine Briggs discovered C.G. Jung's book, Psychological Types, she reported to her daughter, "This is it!" and proceeded to study the book intensely. Mother and daughter became avid "type watchers" over the next twenty years." (MBTI News, Vol. 2, No. 4, p. 2)
From these beginnings the test slowly evolved over the course of 40 years, with Myers testing thousands of school children, and medical students. In 1962 Educational Testing Services published a research version. In 1975 Consulting Psychologist Press brought out a version for general use, and it has spread widely since then. In the 1970s Isabel Myers worked with Mary McCaulley developing a Center for Applications of Psychological Type with its library, data bank, publications, and a mailing list of over 16,000 names. The Association for Psychological Types now has over 2,000 members in 10 countries. It is involved in publishing the Bulletin of Psychological Types and the journal of Psychological Types, holds national MBTI conferences, and so forth.
There has been an ever growing amount of literature about the use of this test. Let's pause for a moment and examine some examples of it to get its flavor.
James Hart, addressing himself to the question, "Are theoretical and methodological orientation an expression of psychology majors' personalities?", gave the MBTI and the theoretical orientation survey to 181 junior and senior psychology majors. He found that an objective orientation was related to high scores in extraversion, sensing, thinking and judging, while high scores in their opposites indicated a subjective orientation.
Alida Westman and Francis Canter in "Relationship Between Certain Circadian Behavior Patterns and Jungian Personality Types" had 24 adults rate themselves every two hours during the day on physical activity, concentration, and sociability, and gave these people the MBTI. Extraverts reported becoming more sociable from approximately 10 a.m. to noon to 2 p.m. and decreasing in their ability to concentrate between noon and 2 p.m. when they reported feeling happy, sociable and more relaxed.
In a more ambitious study John Ross compared the four scales of the MBTI with a battery of 32 different tests in 571 high school students. The first and most obvious factor that he derived, he felt, was one of general ability most manifest in a vocabulary test and also present negatively in the sensation-intuition scale. In another form of analysis he related liking to think with ENTJ, business information with ENTP, and gregariousness with ESFP.
In "Studies of Jungian Typology II: Representations of the Personal World" Rae Carlson, building on earlier work that found type differences in the performance of tasks involving short-term memory, the judgment of facial expressions and volunteer service, found: 1. the introverted thinking type and the extraverted feeling type differ in the quality of their affective memory; 2. thinking and feeling types differ in their emphasis on cognitive clarity vs. vividness of feeling; 3. sensation and intuitive types differ in their styles of self- description offered to an imagined foreign correspondent. In the last case the intuitives made direct or indirect references to the imagined other, while the sensing types introduced themselves in terms of their physical appearance.
James Witzig in "Jung's Typology and Classification of the Psychotherapies" tested 102 public health workers in such a way as to generate information about their own type preferences and how they would assign different hypothetical clients to different kinds of therapy. His questionnaire was based on items from the MBTI and generated results that supported his typological classification of therapies. In this classification:
"The individual approach is regarded as introversive and the group modality as extraversive. Psychotherapies are additionally classified according to function type: Thinking = Informational cognitive - includes educational, psychoanalytic, transactional and rational-emotive therapies; Intuition = Symbolic/intuitive -includes Jungian analysis, transcendental meditation and fantasy dominated procedures; Sensation = Sensory/experiential - includes Gestalt, bio-energetic, behavior modification, and most occupational therapies; Feeling = Confrontational/conative - includes psychodrama, client-centred and encounter methods." (P. 329)
Mattoon, in her Jungian Psychology in Perspective, concisely summarizes any number of studies which employ the MBTI. They include: changes in introversion and extraversion with age, whether friends are more similar or dissimilar in type, what types tend to marry each other, and how different types react in groups.
She also summarizes a number of studies that compare the MBTI with other introversion-extraversion tests, do split-half correlations, and other sorts of testing of the test similar to but more extensive to those that have accumulated around the GrayWheelwright Test.
A study by Stricker and Ross, "An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian Personality Typology", turned up basically negative results when it found that the indicator scores did not have bimodal distributions and lacked other statistical attributes that they would have expected to accompany the existence of dichotomist types. The new edition of the MBTI Manual, A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 1985, presents extensive information on attempts to test the validity of the MBTI.
The manual provides extensive comparisons between the MBTI and many other inventories including the Eysenck Personality Questionnaires, the Jungian Type Survey, the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), Allport, Vernon and Lindsay's Study of Values, and the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. The MBTI has found extensive use in school and business settings. (Moore, Keirsey and Bates, Lawrence, etc.)
This small sampling is dwarfed by the CAPT printout of MBTI studies which, when last I looked, contained over 1,100 items. Gille-Maisani briefly reviews dozens of studies on extraversion and introversion and psychological types in his Types de Jung et temp�raments psychobiologiques.
The Singer-Loomis Inventory of Personality
This is the work of two Jungian analysts, June Singer and Mary Loomis. It is not only the newest of the tests, but it is structured differently, for it does not make the assumption that the three measures of extraversion-introversion, thinking- feeling and sensation-intuition must be opposed to each other. The experimental edition has 120 questions grouped around 15 situations, and each question can be answered on a scale from I (never) to 5 (always). Situation 1, for example, states: "I have a free day coming up this week and will be able to do whatever I want. I would..." and then proceeds to name 8 possibilities, each to be answered on a scale from 1 to 5.
The 8 psychological types are viewed as independent cognitive modes, and the test attempts to measure their relative development in the individual. Since one type of development is not assumed to exclude another, the manual describes people with, for example, both introverted intuition and extraverted sensation highly developed. We will return to the question of bi-polarity when we look at new developments in the field of Jungian typology.
The development of these type tests and their application demonstrate the outward trajectory that Psychological Types has been following since its publication. The tests have arisen in large part in response to the diagnostic question, and they have given prominence to the interpersonal nature of types and brought Jung's ideas into the realm of the experimental psychologists.
Interpersonal Nature of Types
Outside professional Jungian circles it is clear that the interpersonal nature of types holds center stage, and there is no question that this kind of development is legitimate. We have seen the interpersonal interactions that helped Jung formulate his typology, and he, himself, used them to help explain to his patients their family conflicts. Typology is finding a fertile field of application in everything from marriage counseling to vocational guidance, and more people are probably being introduced to Jungian psychology through typology, especially in the form of type tests, than in any other way. Types are ideally formulated for dealing with normal people who will never see the inside of an analyst's office, but are in dire need of some way to make sense of the relationships they are involved in.
As positive as the development of this aspect of typology is, and despite the enthusiastic reception it is receiving in many quarters, it is important to look beyond these new and exciting beginnings and try to discern potential storm clouds forming on the far horizon.
Poepoei
Legacy Member
Alfred Adler
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Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler (February 7, 1870 – May 28, 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor and psychologist, founder of the school of individual psychology.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Early career
* 2 Adler becomes a well known figure in psychiatry
* 3 Emigration and death
* 4 Basic principles
o 4.1 Adler's approach to personality
o 4.2 Psychodynamics and 'teleology'
o 4.3 Constructivism and metaphysics
o 4.4 Holism
o 4.5 Typology
o 4.6 On birth order
o 4.7 On homosexuality
* 5 On Parent education and prevention
* 6 Spirituality, ecology and community
* 7 Publications
o 7.1 Other key Adlerian texts
o 7.2 References
o 7.3 English language Adlerian journals
* 8 External links
[edit] Early career
Part of a series of articles on
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
Constructs
Psychosexual development
Psychosocial development
Conscious • Preconscious • Unconscious
Id, ego, and super-ego
Libido • Drive
Transference • Resistance
Important Figures
Sigmund Freud • Carl Jung
Alfred Adler • Otto Rank
Anna Freud
Karen Horney • Jacques Lacan
Ronald Fairbairn • Melanie Klein
Harry Stack Sullivan
Erik Erikson • Nancy Chodorow
Important works
The Interpretation of Dreams
Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis
"Beyond the Pleasure Principle"
Schools of Thought
Self psychology • Lacanian
Analytical psychology • Object relations
Interpersonal • Relational
Attachment • Ego psychology
Psychology Portal
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In 1901 Adler received a letter from Sigmund Freud inviting him to join an informal discussion group that included Max Kahane, Rudolf Reitler, and Wilhelm Stekel. They met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freud's home with membership expanding over time. This group was the early inception of the psychoanalytic movement (Mittwochsgesellschaft or the "Wednesday Society"). A long serving member of the group, Adler became President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later (1910). He remained a member of the Society until 1911 when he and a group of supporters formally disengaged, the first of the great dissenters from Freudian psychoanalysis (preceding Carl Jung's notorious split in 1914). This departure suited both Freud and Adler since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which often diverged from Freud's. It is commonly suggested that Adler was once "a pupil of Freud's", however this suggestion is a myth; they were colleagues. In 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freud's but rather that Freud had sought him out to share his ideas. Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adler's group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents (who believed that Adler's ideas on power and inferiority were closer to Nietzsche than were Freud's). Their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration of Freud's ideas on dreams and credited him for creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilisation (Fiebert, 1997). Nevertheless, even with dream interpretation, Adler had his own theoretical and clinical approach. The primary differences between Adler and Freud centred on Adler's contention that the social realm (exteriority) is as important to psychology as is the internal realm (interiority). The dynamics of power and compensation extend beyond sexuality and the arena of gender and politics are important considerations that go beyond libido. Moreover, Freud did not share Adler's socialist beliefs. Trotsky's biography mentions his having discussions with Alfred Adler in Vienna.
[edit] Adler becomes a well known figure in psychiatry
Adler's efforts were halted by World War I, during which he served as a doctor with the Austrian Army. Post-war his influence increased greatly into the 1930s, he established a number of child guidance clinics from 1921 and was a frequent lecturer in Europe and the United States, becoming a visiting professor at Columbia University in 1927. Therapeutically his methods avoided the concentration on adult psychology by attempting to pre-empt future problems in the child by encouraging and promoting social interest and also by avoiding pampering, neglect, and especially corporal punishment. In adults the therapy relied on the exclusion of blame or a superior attitude by the practitioner, the reduction of resistance by raising awareness of individual behaviour and the refusal to become adversarial. Adler was concerned with overcoming the superiority/inferiority dynamic and was one of the first psychotherapists to discard the analytic couch in favour of two chairs whereby the clinician and patient could sit together more or less as equals. Adler's popularity was related to the comparative optimism and comprehensibility of his ideas. He often wrote for the lay public compared to Freud or Jung, whose writings tend to be exclusively academic. Adler always retained a pragmatic approach that was task oriented. He famously commented, "The test of one's behaviour pattern: relationship to society, relationship to one's work, relationship to sex." In these three life task zones one could find the major problems that precipitated psychological consultation.
[edit] Emigration and death
In 1932, after most of Adler's Austrian clinics were closed due to his Jewish heritage (regardless of the fact that he had already converted to Christianity), Adler left Austria for a professorship at the Long Island College of Medicine in the USA. Adler died from a heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland during a lecture tour in 1937. At the time it was a blow to the influence of his ideas although a number of them were taken up by neo-Freudians. Through the work of Dreikurs in the United States and many other adherents worldwide, Adlerian ideas and approaches remain strong and viable more than 70 years after Adler's death.
Around the world there are various organizations promoting Dr. Adler's orientation towards mental and social well-being. These include the International Committee of Adlerian Summer Schools and Institutes (ICASSI), the North American Society for Adlerian Psychology (NASAP) and the International Association for Individual Psychology. Teaching institutes and programs exist in Austria, Canada, England, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Switzerland, the United States and Wales.
[edit] Basic principles
Adler was influenced by the mental construct ideas of the philosopher Hans Vaihinger ("The Philosophy of As If") and the literature of Dostoyevsky. While still a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society he developed a theory of organic inferiority and compensation that was the prototype for his later turn to phenomenology and the development of his famous concept, the inferiority complex.
Adler was also influenced by the philosophies of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Rudolf Virchow and the statesman Jan Smuts (who coined the term "holism"). Adler's School, known as "Individual Psychology" (an arcane reference to the Latin "individuus" meaning indivisibility - a term intended to emphasise holism), is both a social and community psychology as well as a depth psychology. Adler was an early advocate in psychology for prevention and emphasised the training of parents, teachers, social workers and so on in democratic approaches that allow a child to exercise their power through reasoned decision making whilst co-operating with others. He was a social idealist, and was known as a socialist in his early years of association with psychoanalysis (1902-1911). His allegiance to Marxism dissipated over time (he retained Marx's social idealism yet distanced himself from Marx's economic theories). Adler was a very pragmatic man and believed that lay people could make practical use of the insights of psychology. He sought to construct a social movement united under the principles of "Gemeinschaftsgefuehl" (community feeling) and social interest (the practical actions that are exercised for the social good). Adler was also an early supporter of feminism in psychology and the social world believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles. These styles could form the basis of psychic compensation and lead to mental health difficulties. Adler also spoke of "safeguarding tendencies" and neurotic behaviour long before Anna Freud wrote about the same phenomena in her famous book "The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense".
Adlerians have extensively theorised, discoursed, researched and implemented clinical and social practices based on the following topics:
1. Mental Health Prevention 2. Social Interest and Community Feeling 3. Holism and the Creative Self 4. Fictional Finalism, Teleology, and Goals 5. Psychological and Social Encouragement 6. Inferiority, Superiority and Compensation 7. Life Style / Style of Life 8. Early Recollections (a projective technique) 9. Family Constellation and Birth Order 10. Life Tasks & Social Embeddedness 11. The un/conscious 12. Private Logic & Common Sense (based in part on Kant's "sensus communis") 13. Symptoms and Neurosis 14. Safeguarding Behaviour 15. Guilt and Guilt Feelings 16. Socratic Questioning 17. Dreams and Interpretation 18. Working with Children and Adolescents 19. Democratic approaches to Parenting and Families 20. Adlerian Approaches to Classroom Management 21. Leadership and organisational psychology.
Adlerian psychology has always included both professional and lay adherents. Indeed, Adler felt that all people could make use of the scientific insights garnered by psychology and he welcomed everyone, from decorated academics to those with no formal education to participate in spreading the principles of Adlerian psychology.
[edit] Adler's approach to personality
Adler's 1912 book, ber den nervesen Charakter (The Neurotic Character) defines his key ideas. He argued that human personality could be explained teleologically, separate strands dominated by the guiding purpose of the individual's unconscious self ideal to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or rather completeness). The desires of the self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands. If the corrective factors were disregarded and the individual over-compensated, then an inferiority complex would occur, fostering the danger of the individual becoming egocentric, power-hungry and aggressive or worse. Common therapeutic tools include the use of humour, historical instances, and paradoxical injunctions.
[edit] Psychodynamics and 'teleology'
Adler believed that human psychology is psychodynamic in nature yet unlike Freud's metapsychology, which emphasises instinctual demands, human psychology is guided by goals and fuelled by a yet unknown creative force. Like Freud's instincts, Adler's fictive goals are largely unconscious. These goals have a 'teleological' function. Constructivist Adlerians, influenced by neo-Kantian and Nietzschean ideas, view these 'teleological' goals as "fictions" in the sense that Hans Vaihinger spoke of ("fictio"). Usually there is a fictional final goal which can be deciphered alongside of innumerable sub-goals. The inferiority / superiority dynamic is constantly at work through various forms of compensation and over-compensation. For example, in anorexia nervosa the fictive final goal is to "be perfectly thin" (overcompensation on the basis of a feeling of inferiority). Hence, the fictive final goal can serve a persecutory function that is ever-present in subjectivity (though its trace springs are usually unconscious). The end goal of being 'thin' is fictive however since it can never be subjectively achieved. Teleology also serves another vital function for Adlerians. Chilon's "hora telos" ("see the end, consider the consequences") provides for both healthy and maladaptive psychodynamics.
[edit] Constructivism and metaphysics
The metaphysical thread of Adlerian theory does not problematise the notion of teleology since concepts such as eternity (an ungraspable end where time ceases to exist) match the religious aspects that are held in tandem. In contrast, the constructivist Adlerian threads (either humanist/modernist or postmodern in variant) seek to raise insight of the force of unconscious fictions - which carry all of the inevitability of 'fate' - so long as one does not understand them. Here, 'teleology' itself is fictive yet experienced as quite real. This aspect of Adler's theory is somewhat analogous to the principles developed in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Therapy (CT). Both Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck credit Adler as a major precursor to REBT and CT.
As a psychodynamic system, Adlerians excavate the past of a client/patient in order to alter their future and increase integration into community in the here-and-now. The here-and-now aspects are especially relevant to those Adlerians who emphasise humanism and/or existentialism in their approaches.
[edit] Holism
Metaphysical Adlerians emphasise a spiritual holism in keeping with what Jan Smuts emphasised (Smuts coined the term holism), that is, the spiritual sense of one-ness that holism usually implies (etymology of holism - traced to Holy-ness). Smuts believed that evolution involves a progressive series of lesser wholes integrating into larger ones. Whilst Smuts' text "Holism and Evolution" is thought to be a work of science, it actually attempts to unify evolution with a higher metaphysical principle (holism). The sense of connection and one-ness revered in various religious traditions (e.g. Baha'i, Chrisitanity, Judaism, Islam, etc.) finds a strong complement in Adler's thought.
The pragmatic and materialist aspects to contextualizing members of communities, the construction of communities and the socio-hiostorical-political forces that shape communities matter a great deal when it comes to understanding an individual's psychological make-up and functioning. This aspect of Adlerian psychology holds a high level of synergy with the field of community psychology.
Adlerian psychology, Jung's Analytical Psychology, Gestalt Therapy and Horney's Holistic Psychology are all holistic schools of psychology.
[edit] Typology
Adler developed a scheme of the so called personality types. These 'types' are to be taken as provisional or heuristic since he did not, in essence, believe in personality types. The danger with typology is to lose sight of the individual's uniqueness and to gaze reductively, acts that Adler opposed. Nevertheless, he intended to illustrate patterns that could denote a characteristic governed under the overall style of life. Hence American Adlerians such as Harold Mosak have made use of Adler's typology in this provisional sense:
* The Getting or Leaning type are those who selfishly take without giving back. These people also tend to be anti-social and have low activity levels.
* The Avoiding types are those that hate being defeated. They may be successful, but have not taken any risks getting there. They are likely to have low social contact in fear of rejection or defeat in any way.
* The Ruling or Dominant type strive for power and are willing to manipulate situations and people, anything to get their way. People of this type are also prone to anti-social behavior.
* The Socially Useful types are those who are very outgoing and very active. They have a lot of social contact and strive to make changes for the good.
These 'types' are typically formed in childhood and are expressions of the Style of Life.
[edit] On birth order
Adler often emphasised one's birth order as having an influence on the Style of Life and the srengths and weaknesses in one's psychological make up. Birth Order referred to the placement of siblings within the family. Adler believed that the firstborn child would be loved and nurtured by the family until the arrival of a second child. This second child would cause the first born to suffer feelings of dethronement, no longer being the centre of attention. Adler believed that in a three-child family, the oldest child would be the most likely to suffer from neuroticism and substance addiction which he reasoned was a compensation for the feelings of excessive responsibility "the weight of the world on one's shoulders" (e.g. having to look after the younger ones) and the melancholic loss of that once supremely pampered position. As a result, he predicted that this child was the most likely to end up in jail or an asylum. Youngest children would tend to be overindulged, leading to poor social empathy. Consequently, the middle child, who would experience neither dethronement nor overindulgence, was most likely to develop into a successful individual yet also most likely to be a rebel and to feel squeezed-out. While Adler argued this viewpoint throughout the early 1900s, he never produced any scientific support for these birth order roles. The value of the hypothesis was to extend the importance of siblings in marking the psychology of the individual beyond Freud's more limited emphasis on the Mother and Father. Hence, Adlerians spend time therapeutically mapping the influence that siblings (or lack thereof) had on the psychology of their clients and to excavate the phenomenology of one's birth order position for likely influence on the subject's Style of Life. In sum, the subjective experiences of sibling positionality and inter-relations are psychodynamically important for Adlerian therapists and personality theorists, not the cookbook predictions that may or may not have been objectively true in Adler's time.
[edit] On homosexuality
Adler's ideas regarding non heteronormative sexuality and various social forms of deviance have long been controversial. Adler's theory of homosexuality was deeply entrenched in the dominant culture of the time, one that ubiquitously disparaged same sex erotic and romantic relationships. Along with prostitution and criminality, Adler had classified 'homosexuals' as falling among the "failures of life". In 1917, he began his writings on homosexuality with a 52 page brochure and sporadically published more thoughts throughout the rest of his life.
The Dutch psychiatrist Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg underlines how Alfred Adler came to his conclusions for, in 1917, Adler believed that he had established a connection between homosexuality and an inferiority complex towards one's own gender. This point of view differed from Freud's equally problematic contention that homosexuality is rooted in narcissism or Jung's conservative views of inappropriate expressions of contrasexuality vis-a-vis the archetypes of the Anima and Animus.
In contemporary Adlerian thought gays, lesbians, and bisexuals are most certainly not considered within the problematic discourse of the "failures of life". There is evidence that Adler too was, perhaps, moving towards abandoning the hypothesis. Towards the end of Adler's life, in the mid 1930s, his opinion towards homosexuality began to shift. Elizabeth H. McDowell, a New York state family social worker recalls undertaking supervision with Adler on a young man who was "living in sin" with an older man in New York city. Adler asked her, "is he happy, would you say"? "Oh yes", Elizabeth replied. Adler then stated, "Well, why don't we leave him alone" (Manaster, Painter, Deutsch, and Overholt, 1977, pp. 81-82). On reflection, Elizabeth found this comment to contain "profound wisdom". In the 1930s the common attitude and medical opinion was quite unanimous, homosexuality was considered a moral failing and a mental disease. In 1973 the American Psychiatric Association de-listed homosexuality as a mental disorder in their diagnostic nomenclature (DSM). In 1998, the Adlerian psychotherapist Christopher Shelley published a volume featuring Freudian, (post)Jungian and Adlerian essays demonstrating affirmative shifts in the depth psychologies in supporting gay and lesbian psychotherapy clients (see: "Contemporary Perspectives on Psychotherapy and Homosexualities", London: Free Association Books).
[edit] On Parent education and prevention
Adler emphasized both treatment and prevention. As a psychodynamic psychology, Adlerians emphasise the foundational importance of childhood in developing personality and any tendency towards various forms of psychopathology. The best way to innoculate against what are now termed "personality disorders" (what Adler had called the "neurotic character"), or a tendency to various neurotic conditions (depression, anxiety, etc.), is to train a child to be and feel an equal part of the family. This entails developing a democratic character and the ability to exercise power reasonably rather than through compensation. Hence Adler prosyletyzed against corporal punishment and cautioned parents to refrain from the twin evils of pampering and neglect. The responsibility to the optimal development of the child is not limited to the Mother or Father but to teachers and society more broadly. Adler argued therefore that teachers, nurses, social workers, and so on require training in parent education in order to compliment the work of the family in fostering a democratic character. When a child does not feel equal and is enacted upon (abused through pampering or neglect) they are likely to develop inferiority or superiority complexes and various accompanying compensation strategies. These strategies exact a social toll by seeding higher divorce rates, the breakdown of the family, criminal tendencies and subjective suffering in the various guises of psychopathology. Adlerians have long promoted parent education groups especially those influenced by the famous Austrian/American Adlerian Rudolf Dreikurs.
[edit] Spirituality, ecology and community
In a late work titled "Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind" Adler (1938) turns to the subject of metaphysics where he integrates Jan Smuts' evolutionary holism with the idea of teleology and community: "sub specie aeternitatus". Unabashedly, he argues his vision of society: "Social feeling means above all a struggle for a communal form that must be thought of as eternally applicable... when humanity has attained its goal of perfection... an ideal society amongst all mankind, the ultimate fulfilment of evolution." (p. 275). Adler follows this pronouncement with a defense of metaphysics:
"I see no reason to be afraid of metaphysics; it has had a great influence on human life and development. We are not blessed with the possession of absolute truth; on that account we are compelled to form theories for ourselves about our future, about the results of our actions, etc. Our idea of social feeling as the final form of humanity - of an imagined state in which all the problems of life are solved and all our relations to the external world rightly adjusted - is a regulative ideal, a goal that gives our direction. This goal of perfection must bear within it the goal of an ideal community, because all that we value in life, all that endures and continues to endure, is eternally the product of this social feeling." (Adler, 1938, pp. 275-276).
This social feeling for Adler is Gemeinschaftsgefuehl, a community feeling whereby one feels they belong with others and have also developed an ecological connection with nature (plants, animals, the crust of this earth) and the cosmos as a whole, sub specie aeternitatus. Clearly, Adler himself had little problem with adopting a metaphysical and spiritual point of view to support his theories. Yet his overall theoretical yield provides ample room for the dialectical humanist (modernist) and separately the postmodernist to explain the significance of community and ecology through differing lenses (even if Adlerians have not fully considered how deeply divisive and contradictory these three threads of metaphysics, modernism, and post modernism are).
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Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler (February 7, 1870 – May 28, 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor and psychologist, founder of the school of individual psychology.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Early career
* 2 Adler becomes a well known figure in psychiatry
* 3 Emigration and death
* 4 Basic principles
o 4.1 Adler's approach to personality
o 4.2 Psychodynamics and 'teleology'
o 4.3 Constructivism and metaphysics
o 4.4 Holism
o 4.5 Typology
o 4.6 On birth order
o 4.7 On homosexuality
* 5 On Parent education and prevention
* 6 Spirituality, ecology and community
* 7 Publications
o 7.1 Other key Adlerian texts
o 7.2 References
o 7.3 English language Adlerian journals
* 8 External links
[edit] Early career
Part of a series of articles on
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis
Constructs
Psychosexual development
Psychosocial development
Conscious • Preconscious • Unconscious
Id, ego, and super-ego
Libido • Drive
Transference • Resistance
Important Figures
Sigmund Freud • Carl Jung
Alfred Adler • Otto Rank
Anna Freud
Karen Horney • Jacques Lacan
Ronald Fairbairn • Melanie Klein
Harry Stack Sullivan
Erik Erikson • Nancy Chodorow
Important works
The Interpretation of Dreams
Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis
"Beyond the Pleasure Principle"
Schools of Thought
Self psychology • Lacanian
Analytical psychology • Object relations
Interpersonal • Relational
Attachment • Ego psychology
Psychology Portal
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In 1901 Adler received a letter from Sigmund Freud inviting him to join an informal discussion group that included Max Kahane, Rudolf Reitler, and Wilhelm Stekel. They met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freud's home with membership expanding over time. This group was the early inception of the psychoanalytic movement (Mittwochsgesellschaft or the "Wednesday Society"). A long serving member of the group, Adler became President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later (1910). He remained a member of the Society until 1911 when he and a group of supporters formally disengaged, the first of the great dissenters from Freudian psychoanalysis (preceding Carl Jung's notorious split in 1914). This departure suited both Freud and Adler since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which often diverged from Freud's. It is commonly suggested that Adler was once "a pupil of Freud's", however this suggestion is a myth; they were colleagues. In 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freud's but rather that Freud had sought him out to share his ideas. Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adler's group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents (who believed that Adler's ideas on power and inferiority were closer to Nietzsche than were Freud's). Their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration of Freud's ideas on dreams and credited him for creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilisation (Fiebert, 1997). Nevertheless, even with dream interpretation, Adler had his own theoretical and clinical approach. The primary differences between Adler and Freud centred on Adler's contention that the social realm (exteriority) is as important to psychology as is the internal realm (interiority). The dynamics of power and compensation extend beyond sexuality and the arena of gender and politics are important considerations that go beyond libido. Moreover, Freud did not share Adler's socialist beliefs. Trotsky's biography mentions his having discussions with Alfred Adler in Vienna.
[edit] Adler becomes a well known figure in psychiatry
Adler's efforts were halted by World War I, during which he served as a doctor with the Austrian Army. Post-war his influence increased greatly into the 1930s, he established a number of child guidance clinics from 1921 and was a frequent lecturer in Europe and the United States, becoming a visiting professor at Columbia University in 1927. Therapeutically his methods avoided the concentration on adult psychology by attempting to pre-empt future problems in the child by encouraging and promoting social interest and also by avoiding pampering, neglect, and especially corporal punishment. In adults the therapy relied on the exclusion of blame or a superior attitude by the practitioner, the reduction of resistance by raising awareness of individual behaviour and the refusal to become adversarial. Adler was concerned with overcoming the superiority/inferiority dynamic and was one of the first psychotherapists to discard the analytic couch in favour of two chairs whereby the clinician and patient could sit together more or less as equals. Adler's popularity was related to the comparative optimism and comprehensibility of his ideas. He often wrote for the lay public compared to Freud or Jung, whose writings tend to be exclusively academic. Adler always retained a pragmatic approach that was task oriented. He famously commented, "The test of one's behaviour pattern: relationship to society, relationship to one's work, relationship to sex." In these three life task zones one could find the major problems that precipitated psychological consultation.
[edit] Emigration and death
In 1932, after most of Adler's Austrian clinics were closed due to his Jewish heritage (regardless of the fact that he had already converted to Christianity), Adler left Austria for a professorship at the Long Island College of Medicine in the USA. Adler died from a heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland during a lecture tour in 1937. At the time it was a blow to the influence of his ideas although a number of them were taken up by neo-Freudians. Through the work of Dreikurs in the United States and many other adherents worldwide, Adlerian ideas and approaches remain strong and viable more than 70 years after Adler's death.
Around the world there are various organizations promoting Dr. Adler's orientation towards mental and social well-being. These include the International Committee of Adlerian Summer Schools and Institutes (ICASSI), the North American Society for Adlerian Psychology (NASAP) and the International Association for Individual Psychology. Teaching institutes and programs exist in Austria, Canada, England, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Switzerland, the United States and Wales.
[edit] Basic principles
Adler was influenced by the mental construct ideas of the philosopher Hans Vaihinger ("The Philosophy of As If") and the literature of Dostoyevsky. While still a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society he developed a theory of organic inferiority and compensation that was the prototype for his later turn to phenomenology and the development of his famous concept, the inferiority complex.
Adler was also influenced by the philosophies of Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Rudolf Virchow and the statesman Jan Smuts (who coined the term "holism"). Adler's School, known as "Individual Psychology" (an arcane reference to the Latin "individuus" meaning indivisibility - a term intended to emphasise holism), is both a social and community psychology as well as a depth psychology. Adler was an early advocate in psychology for prevention and emphasised the training of parents, teachers, social workers and so on in democratic approaches that allow a child to exercise their power through reasoned decision making whilst co-operating with others. He was a social idealist, and was known as a socialist in his early years of association with psychoanalysis (1902-1911). His allegiance to Marxism dissipated over time (he retained Marx's social idealism yet distanced himself from Marx's economic theories). Adler was a very pragmatic man and believed that lay people could make practical use of the insights of psychology. He sought to construct a social movement united under the principles of "Gemeinschaftsgefuehl" (community feeling) and social interest (the practical actions that are exercised for the social good). Adler was also an early supporter of feminism in psychology and the social world believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles. These styles could form the basis of psychic compensation and lead to mental health difficulties. Adler also spoke of "safeguarding tendencies" and neurotic behaviour long before Anna Freud wrote about the same phenomena in her famous book "The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense".
Adlerians have extensively theorised, discoursed, researched and implemented clinical and social practices based on the following topics:
1. Mental Health Prevention 2. Social Interest and Community Feeling 3. Holism and the Creative Self 4. Fictional Finalism, Teleology, and Goals 5. Psychological and Social Encouragement 6. Inferiority, Superiority and Compensation 7. Life Style / Style of Life 8. Early Recollections (a projective technique) 9. Family Constellation and Birth Order 10. Life Tasks & Social Embeddedness 11. The un/conscious 12. Private Logic & Common Sense (based in part on Kant's "sensus communis") 13. Symptoms and Neurosis 14. Safeguarding Behaviour 15. Guilt and Guilt Feelings 16. Socratic Questioning 17. Dreams and Interpretation 18. Working with Children and Adolescents 19. Democratic approaches to Parenting and Families 20. Adlerian Approaches to Classroom Management 21. Leadership and organisational psychology.
Adlerian psychology has always included both professional and lay adherents. Indeed, Adler felt that all people could make use of the scientific insights garnered by psychology and he welcomed everyone, from decorated academics to those with no formal education to participate in spreading the principles of Adlerian psychology.
[edit] Adler's approach to personality
Adler's 1912 book, ber den nervesen Charakter (The Neurotic Character) defines his key ideas. He argued that human personality could be explained teleologically, separate strands dominated by the guiding purpose of the individual's unconscious self ideal to convert feelings of inferiority to superiority (or rather completeness). The desires of the self ideal were countered by social and ethical demands. If the corrective factors were disregarded and the individual over-compensated, then an inferiority complex would occur, fostering the danger of the individual becoming egocentric, power-hungry and aggressive or worse. Common therapeutic tools include the use of humour, historical instances, and paradoxical injunctions.
[edit] Psychodynamics and 'teleology'
Adler believed that human psychology is psychodynamic in nature yet unlike Freud's metapsychology, which emphasises instinctual demands, human psychology is guided by goals and fuelled by a yet unknown creative force. Like Freud's instincts, Adler's fictive goals are largely unconscious. These goals have a 'teleological' function. Constructivist Adlerians, influenced by neo-Kantian and Nietzschean ideas, view these 'teleological' goals as "fictions" in the sense that Hans Vaihinger spoke of ("fictio"). Usually there is a fictional final goal which can be deciphered alongside of innumerable sub-goals. The inferiority / superiority dynamic is constantly at work through various forms of compensation and over-compensation. For example, in anorexia nervosa the fictive final goal is to "be perfectly thin" (overcompensation on the basis of a feeling of inferiority). Hence, the fictive final goal can serve a persecutory function that is ever-present in subjectivity (though its trace springs are usually unconscious). The end goal of being 'thin' is fictive however since it can never be subjectively achieved. Teleology also serves another vital function for Adlerians. Chilon's "hora telos" ("see the end, consider the consequences") provides for both healthy and maladaptive psychodynamics.
[edit] Constructivism and metaphysics
The metaphysical thread of Adlerian theory does not problematise the notion of teleology since concepts such as eternity (an ungraspable end where time ceases to exist) match the religious aspects that are held in tandem. In contrast, the constructivist Adlerian threads (either humanist/modernist or postmodern in variant) seek to raise insight of the force of unconscious fictions - which carry all of the inevitability of 'fate' - so long as one does not understand them. Here, 'teleology' itself is fictive yet experienced as quite real. This aspect of Adler's theory is somewhat analogous to the principles developed in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Cognitive Therapy (CT). Both Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck credit Adler as a major precursor to REBT and CT.
As a psychodynamic system, Adlerians excavate the past of a client/patient in order to alter their future and increase integration into community in the here-and-now. The here-and-now aspects are especially relevant to those Adlerians who emphasise humanism and/or existentialism in their approaches.
[edit] Holism
Metaphysical Adlerians emphasise a spiritual holism in keeping with what Jan Smuts emphasised (Smuts coined the term holism), that is, the spiritual sense of one-ness that holism usually implies (etymology of holism - traced to Holy-ness). Smuts believed that evolution involves a progressive series of lesser wholes integrating into larger ones. Whilst Smuts' text "Holism and Evolution" is thought to be a work of science, it actually attempts to unify evolution with a higher metaphysical principle (holism). The sense of connection and one-ness revered in various religious traditions (e.g. Baha'i, Chrisitanity, Judaism, Islam, etc.) finds a strong complement in Adler's thought.
The pragmatic and materialist aspects to contextualizing members of communities, the construction of communities and the socio-hiostorical-political forces that shape communities matter a great deal when it comes to understanding an individual's psychological make-up and functioning. This aspect of Adlerian psychology holds a high level of synergy with the field of community psychology.
Adlerian psychology, Jung's Analytical Psychology, Gestalt Therapy and Horney's Holistic Psychology are all holistic schools of psychology.
[edit] Typology
Adler developed a scheme of the so called personality types. These 'types' are to be taken as provisional or heuristic since he did not, in essence, believe in personality types. The danger with typology is to lose sight of the individual's uniqueness and to gaze reductively, acts that Adler opposed. Nevertheless, he intended to illustrate patterns that could denote a characteristic governed under the overall style of life. Hence American Adlerians such as Harold Mosak have made use of Adler's typology in this provisional sense:
* The Getting or Leaning type are those who selfishly take without giving back. These people also tend to be anti-social and have low activity levels.
* The Avoiding types are those that hate being defeated. They may be successful, but have not taken any risks getting there. They are likely to have low social contact in fear of rejection or defeat in any way.
* The Ruling or Dominant type strive for power and are willing to manipulate situations and people, anything to get their way. People of this type are also prone to anti-social behavior.
* The Socially Useful types are those who are very outgoing and very active. They have a lot of social contact and strive to make changes for the good.
These 'types' are typically formed in childhood and are expressions of the Style of Life.
[edit] On birth order
Adler often emphasised one's birth order as having an influence on the Style of Life and the srengths and weaknesses in one's psychological make up. Birth Order referred to the placement of siblings within the family. Adler believed that the firstborn child would be loved and nurtured by the family until the arrival of a second child. This second child would cause the first born to suffer feelings of dethronement, no longer being the centre of attention. Adler believed that in a three-child family, the oldest child would be the most likely to suffer from neuroticism and substance addiction which he reasoned was a compensation for the feelings of excessive responsibility "the weight of the world on one's shoulders" (e.g. having to look after the younger ones) and the melancholic loss of that once supremely pampered position. As a result, he predicted that this child was the most likely to end up in jail or an asylum. Youngest children would tend to be overindulged, leading to poor social empathy. Consequently, the middle child, who would experience neither dethronement nor overindulgence, was most likely to develop into a successful individual yet also most likely to be a rebel and to feel squeezed-out. While Adler argued this viewpoint throughout the early 1900s, he never produced any scientific support for these birth order roles. The value of the hypothesis was to extend the importance of siblings in marking the psychology of the individual beyond Freud's more limited emphasis on the Mother and Father. Hence, Adlerians spend time therapeutically mapping the influence that siblings (or lack thereof) had on the psychology of their clients and to excavate the phenomenology of one's birth order position for likely influence on the subject's Style of Life. In sum, the subjective experiences of sibling positionality and inter-relations are psychodynamically important for Adlerian therapists and personality theorists, not the cookbook predictions that may or may not have been objectively true in Adler's time.
[edit] On homosexuality
Adler's ideas regarding non heteronormative sexuality and various social forms of deviance have long been controversial. Adler's theory of homosexuality was deeply entrenched in the dominant culture of the time, one that ubiquitously disparaged same sex erotic and romantic relationships. Along with prostitution and criminality, Adler had classified 'homosexuals' as falling among the "failures of life". In 1917, he began his writings on homosexuality with a 52 page brochure and sporadically published more thoughts throughout the rest of his life.
The Dutch psychiatrist Gerard J. M. van den Aardweg underlines how Alfred Adler came to his conclusions for, in 1917, Adler believed that he had established a connection between homosexuality and an inferiority complex towards one's own gender. This point of view differed from Freud's equally problematic contention that homosexuality is rooted in narcissism or Jung's conservative views of inappropriate expressions of contrasexuality vis-a-vis the archetypes of the Anima and Animus.
In contemporary Adlerian thought gays, lesbians, and bisexuals are most certainly not considered within the problematic discourse of the "failures of life". There is evidence that Adler too was, perhaps, moving towards abandoning the hypothesis. Towards the end of Adler's life, in the mid 1930s, his opinion towards homosexuality began to shift. Elizabeth H. McDowell, a New York state family social worker recalls undertaking supervision with Adler on a young man who was "living in sin" with an older man in New York city. Adler asked her, "is he happy, would you say"? "Oh yes", Elizabeth replied. Adler then stated, "Well, why don't we leave him alone" (Manaster, Painter, Deutsch, and Overholt, 1977, pp. 81-82). On reflection, Elizabeth found this comment to contain "profound wisdom". In the 1930s the common attitude and medical opinion was quite unanimous, homosexuality was considered a moral failing and a mental disease. In 1973 the American Psychiatric Association de-listed homosexuality as a mental disorder in their diagnostic nomenclature (DSM). In 1998, the Adlerian psychotherapist Christopher Shelley published a volume featuring Freudian, (post)Jungian and Adlerian essays demonstrating affirmative shifts in the depth psychologies in supporting gay and lesbian psychotherapy clients (see: "Contemporary Perspectives on Psychotherapy and Homosexualities", London: Free Association Books).
[edit] On Parent education and prevention
Adler emphasized both treatment and prevention. As a psychodynamic psychology, Adlerians emphasise the foundational importance of childhood in developing personality and any tendency towards various forms of psychopathology. The best way to innoculate against what are now termed "personality disorders" (what Adler had called the "neurotic character"), or a tendency to various neurotic conditions (depression, anxiety, etc.), is to train a child to be and feel an equal part of the family. This entails developing a democratic character and the ability to exercise power reasonably rather than through compensation. Hence Adler prosyletyzed against corporal punishment and cautioned parents to refrain from the twin evils of pampering and neglect. The responsibility to the optimal development of the child is not limited to the Mother or Father but to teachers and society more broadly. Adler argued therefore that teachers, nurses, social workers, and so on require training in parent education in order to compliment the work of the family in fostering a democratic character. When a child does not feel equal and is enacted upon (abused through pampering or neglect) they are likely to develop inferiority or superiority complexes and various accompanying compensation strategies. These strategies exact a social toll by seeding higher divorce rates, the breakdown of the family, criminal tendencies and subjective suffering in the various guises of psychopathology. Adlerians have long promoted parent education groups especially those influenced by the famous Austrian/American Adlerian Rudolf Dreikurs.
[edit] Spirituality, ecology and community
In a late work titled "Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind" Adler (1938) turns to the subject of metaphysics where he integrates Jan Smuts' evolutionary holism with the idea of teleology and community: "sub specie aeternitatus". Unabashedly, he argues his vision of society: "Social feeling means above all a struggle for a communal form that must be thought of as eternally applicable... when humanity has attained its goal of perfection... an ideal society amongst all mankind, the ultimate fulfilment of evolution." (p. 275). Adler follows this pronouncement with a defense of metaphysics:
"I see no reason to be afraid of metaphysics; it has had a great influence on human life and development. We are not blessed with the possession of absolute truth; on that account we are compelled to form theories for ourselves about our future, about the results of our actions, etc. Our idea of social feeling as the final form of humanity - of an imagined state in which all the problems of life are solved and all our relations to the external world rightly adjusted - is a regulative ideal, a goal that gives our direction. This goal of perfection must bear within it the goal of an ideal community, because all that we value in life, all that endures and continues to endure, is eternally the product of this social feeling." (Adler, 1938, pp. 275-276).
This social feeling for Adler is Gemeinschaftsgefuehl, a community feeling whereby one feels they belong with others and have also developed an ecological connection with nature (plants, animals, the crust of this earth) and the cosmos as a whole, sub specie aeternitatus. Clearly, Adler himself had little problem with adopting a metaphysical and spiritual point of view to support his theories. Yet his overall theoretical yield provides ample room for the dialectical humanist (modernist) and separately the postmodernist to explain the significance of community and ecology through differing lenses (even if Adlerians have not fully considered how deeply divisive and contradictory these three threads of metaphysics, modernism, and post modernism are).
Stancke
Legacy Member
Omdat er twee dingen zijn waar niet over te twisten valt – smaak en cultuur – en omdat beide ten grondslag liggen aan welke auto dan ook, belichten de bloggers de komende tijd de verschillende landen waar onze geliefde vierwielers vandaan komen. Vanwaar die Duitse degelijkheid, die Italiaanse emotie, die Japanse perfectie? Lees het in onze serie ‘Autoblog.world‘. Aflevering 2: Deutschland
Als er een volk is dat zijn stempel heeft gedrukt op de ontwikkeling van auto’s dan zijn het wel de Duitsers. Niet alleen zijn ze verantwoordelijk voor de eerste verbrandingsmotor (1885), ze zijn traditioneel de grootste autoproducent van Europa. De auto-industrie verschaft aan zo’n 800.000 Duitsers werk en is daarmee de grootste werkgever van Duitsland. Dit verklaart de grote macht van de Duitse belangenvereninging van autofabrikanten, het ‘Verband der Automobilindustrie’ (VDA).
Duitse auto’s verkopen traditioneel goed in Nederland. Zo was Opel lange tijd het best verkopende merk van Nederland, maar de koppositie werd onlangs overgenomen door een ander Duits merk, namelijk Volkswagen. Qua totale autoverkopen heeft Duitsland ook duidelijk een koppositie: vorig jaar was 37,5% van de verkochte auto’s van Duitse makelij, ruim meer dan de nummer 2, Frankrijk, met 21,2% van de Nederlandse autoverkopen.
Als je Duitsland zegt, dan zeg je onbegrensde snelheid op de Duitse snelweg. Dit gaat niet meer helemaal op, want er zijn steeds meer stukken snelweg waar een snelheidslimiet geldt. Ondanks het noodgedwongen snoeiwerk ten behoeve van milieu rond de grote steden maar vooral de veiligheid is dit principe van ‘Freie Fahrt’ uniek in Europa en oefent het een grote aantrekkingskracht uit op (met name Zwitserse) bezitters van snelle auto’s die hun voertuig eens ongestraft de sporen willen geven op een leeg stukje snelweg.
Ook ondergetekende maakt regelmatig dankbaar gebruik van dit recht op hardrijden op de openbare weg. Toen dit een keer door een slecht spiegelende vrachtwagenchauffeur tot een kleine aanrijding leidde gaf de ingeschakelde Autobahnpolizei-agente op de klaagzang van de vrachtwagenchauffeur dat ik veel te snel gereden had een antwoord dat slechts uit twee woorden bestond: ‘Freie Fahrt’.
De laatste tijd staat dit principe onder aanzienlijke druk, met name vanuit de Europese Gemeenschap, maar ook door mindere Goden, zoals Greenpeace. Het lijkt er gelukkig op dat Duitsland de kritiek voorlopig weet af te slaan, met name dankzij de eerdergenoemde grote invloed van de auto-industrie en de eraan gelieerde VDA.
Nurburgring in kaartEen ander Walhalla voor sportieve automobilisten dat wereldwijde beroemdheid geniet is de fameuze ‘Nordschleife’ van de Nürgburgring, in de volksmond ook wel ‘die Grüne Hölle’ (de groene hel) genoemd. Tegen betaling mag de bestuurder van wat voor motorvoertuig dan ook zich uitleven op dit 20,8 kilometer lange stuk weg vol met blinde bochten en forse hoogteverschillen. De Ring wordt hierdoor ook wel als de ultieme test van iemands rijcapaciteiten beschouwd. Daarnaast test zo ongeveer elk automerk zijn prototypes op de Ring, wat Nürburg tot een vergaarplaats van spy-fotografen maakt.
Diesel
VW TDI logoDiesel heeft een groot marktaandeel in Europa, in tegenstelling tot de VS, waar diesel nu pas echt begint door te breken.
In Nederland loopt het aandeel van diesel in de nieuwe autoverkopen gestaag omhoog, tot meer dan 25% van de totale verkopen vanaf 2005.
Vanzelfsprekend ligt het aandeel in de leasemarkt, waar de meeste kilometers gemaakt worden, nog een stuk hoger.
Diesel heeft het laatste decennium een geweldige ontwikkeling doorgemaakt. Moest er vroeger nog voorgegloeid worden en waren de diesel-motoren de eerste kilometers niet vooruit te branden, tegenwoordig doen de zelfontbranders dankzij steeds verfijndere inspuitingstechniek en turbo’s niet meer onder voor hun benzine-broertjes.
De pompverstuivingstechniek, waar Volkswagen tot voor kort nog aan vasthield heeft de laatste jaren terrein prijsgegeven aan de common-rail technologie, die tegenwoordig in bijna alle dieselmotoren gemeengoed is geworden.
Wanneer het op de zescilinder diesels aankomt is er geen serieuze concurrentie voor de Duitsers. Audi en BMW hebben zeer geavanceerde turbodiesels rond de 3 liter, terwijl Mercedes een hele range soepele common-rail zescilinder diesels levert, die ideaal zijn om op hoge snelheid de nodige snelwegkilometers af te leggen.
In het viercilinder dieselsegment is de concurrentie buitengewoon hevig, maar ook hier hebben de Duitsers een flink marktaandeel, met de bijzonder zuinige 2 liter-motoren die in menig VAG-model worden gelepeld en op de leasemarkt buitengewoon populair zijn. Hiernaast bieden ook BMW en Mercedes uitstekende vierpitters, die veel power weten te combineren met een spaarzaam brandstofverbruik.
Serieuze concurrentie ondervinden de Duitsers van Fiat, dat de laatste jaren zeer potente dieselmotoren ontwikkelt. De meest krachtige viercilinder van Fiat, de 1.9 JTD met 190 pk, verslaat zijn evenknie van BMW (2 liter, 204 pk) zelfs met een beter koppelverloop. Ook Opel is zo onder de indruk van Fiats motorblokken, dat ze al hun dieselmodellen van een Italiaans hart voorzien.
Het milieu
Milieu-liefhebbersDe roep naar schonere auto’s is met de discussie over het broeikas-effect steeds luider geworden, en de autofabrikanten staan meer dan tevoren onder zware druk om zuinigere, schonere auto’s te maken. Dit vanwege de algemene publieke opinie, maar ook door steeds strenger wordende regelgeving omtrent de uitstoot van stikstof en roet.
Volkswagen experimenteert al geruime tijd met milieuvriendelijke auto’s. De mainstream-auto’s zullen in de nabije toekomst waar mogelijk voorzien worden van VW’s T(F)SI-motoren, die gekenmerkt worden door een kleinere cilinderinhoud maar in de meeste gevallen meer koppel en vermogen dankzij turbo’s/en of superchargers. Hiernaast levert VW zijn Caddy en Touran met EcoFuel (aardgas), maar dit is niet noemenswaardig.
In het verleden heeft VW de bekende Lupo 3L uitgebracht, een driecilinder TDI die, de naam zegt t al, 3 liter per 100 kilometer verbruikte. Dit sloeg alleen aan bij de milieufreaks en de Lupo is inmiddels vervangen door de nog kleinere Fox.
Tot slot is de 1-liter-auto van VW nog de moeite van het vermelden waard: dit prototype werd in 2002 door toenmalig CEO Ferdinand Piëch onder uitgebreide media-aandacht naar de VW-aandeelhoudersvergadering gereden. Dit jaar nog meldde dezelfde Piëch dat een productieversie van deze 1-liter auto binnen 3 jaar te realiseren is, vanwege sterk gedaalde materiaalkosten.
VW 1-liter concept
Opel blijft wat het milieu betreft wat achter. Ook zij voorzien sommige modellen van aardgas maar verder komt een echt milieu-offensief niet lekker van de grond. Een aantal jaren geleden had het merk wel de ECO-Speedster als voorbeeld, maar dit was slechts een concept. De milieuvriendelijkheid blijft vooralsnog beperkt tot het monteren van 1.3 liter dieselblokjes in de kleine Opels.
Zowel Opel als VW hebben een groot aantal kleine auto’s in hun assortiment, wat het halen van door de EU gestelde emissie-eisen een stuk makkelijker maakt dan de drie Duitse luxemerken, die vrijwel alleen midden- en bovenklassers leveren.
Audi doet, als onderdeel van de Volkswagen-groep ook mee met de BLUETEC-technologie. De toepassing ervan is echter alleen bekend bij modellen die nog op de markt moeten komen, zoals de Audi Q7 6.0 V12 TDI en het Cross Coupé-concept.
Tot de invoering van Bluetec heeft Audi nog de extra zuinige ‘e’-dieselmodellen.
Tevens was in het verleden de Audi A2 uitgerust met Vokswagens 3L-technologie, maar ook bij Audi is deze een stille dood gestorven.
Mercedes C220 Bluetec
Mercedes zet net als Audi het meest in op BLUETEC. Evenals bij het merk uit Ingolstadt vielen de eerste toepassingen in personenauto’s in 2008 te verwachten, maar onlangs heeft CEO Dieter Zetsche laten weten haast te willen maken met de invoer van Bluetec. De technologie is vooral voor de Amerikaanse markt bedoeld, waar strenge milieu-eisen gelden, vooral in de staat Californië.
Naast ‘schone diesel’ ontwikkelt Mercedes, samen met BMW en GM, sinds 2005 een mild-hybride systeem. Hierbij is sprake van een conventionele auto met een grotere startmotor, waardoor de motor tijdens stilstand uitgeschakeld kan worden, maar vlot en efficiënt weer opgestart kan worden.
Daarnaast levert Mercedes haar NGT-modellen (Natural Gas Technology), die op aardgas rijden. Voormalig staatssecretaris Van Geel (VROM) gaf het goede voorbeeld en nam een E200-NGT als dienstauto.
Voor de nabije toekomst heeft Mercedes een belangrijke troef in zijn mouw. Een medewerker van het bedrijf verklapte namelijk deze week dat het aan een motor werkt die zowel op gas als op diesel kan rijden. Deze DiesOtto wordt nog deze maand voorgesteld en moet Mercedes’ paradepaardje worden in de strijd naar de gunst van de milieubewuste consument.
BMW Hydrogen 7
BMW: BMW heeft Efficient Dynamics, en werkt daarnaast als gezegd met DaimlerChrysler en General Motors samen aan de ontwikkeling van een hybride-systeem. Hiernaast rijden er prototypes van de 7-serie op waterstof rond. BMW wil deze technologie binnen twee jaar in productie-auto’s toepassen.
Efficient Dynamics is er op gericht om via technologische ontwikkelingen zoals lage-weerstand-banden, een verfijnde brandstofinspuiting en een gewichtsreductie door middel van gebruik van lichtere materialen tot een lager brandstofverbruik en een lagere Co2-uitstoot te komen. Onlangs kondigde BMW een Efficient Dynamics-offensief aan, waardoor vanaf september 75% van de verkochte BMW’s een groen energielabel zal hebben.
Performance
De favoriete stek van de internet-hooligan. Hieronder een overzicht van wat er allemaal te kiezen is in het segment van de krachtige zakenauto’s:
BMW
BMW 3.0 CSL
2008 M3
De M-divisie houdt zich bezig met de performance-modellen van BMW. Dit begon in 1972, toen de BMW 3.0 CSL werd geproduceerd. Dit gebeurde met hulp van huistuner Alpina. Na onenigheid met Alpina besloot BMW de bouw van performance-modellen in eigen hand te nemen en richtte BMW Motorsport op, dat later werd omgedoopt in BMW M GmbH. Het huidige aanbod omvat de Z4 M en M3, met een 3.2 liter zes-in-lijn die 343 pk levert, de BMW M5 en M6 met een 5 liter V10 (507 pk) en vanaf september de nieuwe M3 met een 4 liter V8 die 420 pk levert. Al deze motoren zijn atmosferisch en worden gekenmerkt door het hoge aantal toeren dat ze kunnen draaien.
Mercedes
Mercedes C63 AMG
Mercedes levert zijn performance-modellen via huistuner AMG. Dit bedrijf werd in 1967 als tuningbedrijf opgericht door Hans-Werner Aufrecht en Erhard Melcher in Großaspach, en is nu een dochterfirma van Mercedes.
Momenteel worden drie motoren aangeboden, de 55 en 63 (V8) en de 65 (V12), die in talrijke Mercedes-modellen worden ingebouwd. De 65 is een 6 liter V12 met bi-turbo en levert 612 pk. De 55 en 63 zijn zowel met als zonder supercharger (Kompressor) leverbaar met vermogens variërend van 367 (C 55 AMG) tot 517 pk (SL 55 AMG) en 481 (CLK 63 AMG) tot 525 pk (S 63 AMG). Vanaf september wordt hier de nieuwe C 63 AMG aan toegevoegd die 457 pk uit zijn atmosferische 6,2 liter V8 tovert.
Een duidelijk verschil met BMW en Audi ligt in de cilinderinhoud. Waar de andere twee proberen hun motoren relatief klein te houden, opteert Mercedes voor een rijker koppel en een relatief lager aantal pk’s per liter.
Dit hangt samen met een sterkere nadruk op luxe in plaats van sportief weggedrag, waar Audi en BMW als meer ‘hardcore’ beschouwd kunnen worden.
Audi
Audi RS4 Exclusive White
Verantwoordelijk voor de performance-modellen van Audi tot slot is quattro GmbH. Ook dit is een volledige Audi-dochter met als standplaats Neckarsulm. Naast de RS-modellen van Audi is Quattro ook verantwoordelijk voor de productie van de R8.
Het bedrijf is in 1983 opgericht en is het meest bekend van de enorme successen die de vierwielaangedreven Audi’s neerzetten in de rallywereld, met als hoogtepunt de Audi Sport Quattro S1.
De auto waar het allemaal mee begon is de ‘oer’quattro, geproduceerd vanaf 1980, die destijds al 203 pk uit een 2,1 liter vijf-in-lijn motorblok wist te halen.
Tegenwoordig produceert Quattro de Audi RS4, die 420 pk uit een atmosferische 4,2 liter V8 tovert. Nog dit jaar wordt hier de nieuwe RS6 aan toegevoegd, die (onofficieel) 579 pk uit een V10 (bi)turbo weet te halen.
(Super)Sport
Porsche 911 1964Wanneer je het over echte sportwagens hebt, is er maar één Duitse fabrikant mogelijk: Porsche. Vanaf 1964 produceert het merk de 911, het absolute boegbeeld van het merk uit Züffenhausen. In de loop der jaren zijn er diverse updates geweest maar in de basis zijn de vormen sinds de eerste 911 niet gewijzigd.
Porsche staat alom bekend als een merk waarbij door de meest veeleisende ingenieurs door en door getest wordt tot er een zo perfect mogelijk product is ontwikkeld. De gedrevenheid van de ontwikkelaars en testers leidt tot een oerdegelijk imago van het Duitse merk, en heeft er toe geleid dat Porsche ook dit jaar in de VS door JD Power tot het meest betrouwbare merk is uitgeroepen.
Naast de 911, die de ‘core business’ is van Porsche, heeft het merk het laatste decennium flink uitgebreid in de modellenreeks. Het verbaasde vriend en vijand door in 2002 met een SUV op de markt te komen. Deze Cayenne bleek echter een groot succes te worden, en heeft de verkopen van Porsche flink opgestuwd. Dat ook Porsche met zijn tijd mee gaat bewijst het door nog voor het einde van 2010 in samenwerking met VW en Audi een parallel-hybride systeem in te voeren op de Cayenne en de nog te verschijnen Panamera.
Porsche Cayenne 2007
Aan de onderkant van de markt kwam in 1996 de Boxster, die als opvolger van de legendarische 550 Spyder werd geïntroduceerd. Hoewel de wagen klein, licht en sportief is, wordt hij door velen meer als ‘vrouwenauto’ dan als volbloed Porsche gezien.
In 2005 introduceerde Porsche de Cayman. Hierop oogste Porsche veel kritiek, want het model werd als steriele ‘opvuller’ gezien die precies tussen de Boxster en de 911 geplaatst kan worden. Jeremy Clarkson noemde het model dan ook smalend ‘Coxster’.
Porsche Carrera GT
De meest extreme sportwagen die ooit door Porsche is geproduceerd is zonder twijfel de Carrera GT. Met een kunststof monocoque, magnesium-velgen, keramische remschijven en een 5,7 liter V10 die 612 pk produceert is dit met recht een supersportauto te noemen. De productie begon in 2003 en in 2006 werd de productie van deze 1380 kg wegende, 6 euroton kostende supersport na 1270 exemplaren gestaakt.
Mercedes SLR 722
Naast Porsche fluit Mercedes sinds kort ook een deuntje mee in het supersport-segment. Hierbij doel ik uiteraard op de Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren. Deze Coupé (en binnenkort ook cabrio) wordt sinds 2004 geproduceerd en heeft een supercharged 5,5 liter V8-motor aan boord die maximaal 626 pk uitbraakt. Daarnaast kwam vorig jaar de speciale ‘722 edition’ op de markt. De naam doelt niet op het aantal pk’s (dit is namelijk 650), maar is een eerbetoon aan Sterling Moss en Denis Jenkinson, die in 1955 de fameuze Mille Miglia wisten te winnen in een 300 SLR met startnummer 722.
Hoewel de SLR wel de prijs en de performance van een supersport heeft, valt hij qua gewicht (1768 kg voor de SLR en 1724 kg voor de SLR 722) een beetje buiten de boot, waardoor het meer een Gran Turismo is dan een supersport.
Ondertussen zijn McLaren en Mercedes hun eigen weg gegaan en is Mercedes de samenwerking aangegaan met HWA AG, het bedrijf van Hans Werner Aufrecht, een van de oprichters van AMG. De bedoeling is dat er een Mercedes SLC-supercar komt onder de AMG-vlag.
Mercedes en HWA zijn geen vreemden van elkaar; naast de duidelijke AMG-link werken de twee al jaren samen in het Duits toerwagenkampioenschap, de DTM.
BMW CS Concept
In de toekomst zal BMW waarschijnlijk ook richting het supercar-segment gaan, getuige het CS-concept. Waarschijnlijk zal het model dat hier uit zal voortvloeien flink wat vermogen hebben, maar net als Mercedes iets te veel een compromis zijn, waardoor hij zich op een circuit niet met de pure supersports kan meten.
Tot slot mag het Duitse Wiesmann niet vergeten worden. Deze fun-machines met een BMW-hart hebben als logo een Gekko, omdat de auto’s volgens de makers net zo strak op de weg kleven als deze kleine hagedis aan de muur.
De Toekomst
Alle Duitse merken, behalve Opel, doen het op het moment erg goed. Recordwinst na recordwinst wordt behaald en de drie luxemerken weten ondanks de hoge kosten die hieraan verbonden zijn nog een bijzonder groot deel van de productie in eigen land te houden. Het Europese subsidiebeleid om het achtergebleven Oosten te steunen heeft hierbij zeker geholpen, zonder deze regionale steunfondsen was de bouw van fabrieken in Leipzig en Dresden lang zo interessant niet geweest.
De concurrentie vanuit het buitenland is op het moment in de bovenklasse niet groot, de Amerikaanse ‘Grote Drie’ kampen met grote problemen, de Japanners verkopen goed maar zitten in de hogere klasse niet zo veel in het Duitse vaarwater en van de Chinezen is op korte termijn ook niet veel concurrentie te verwachten, daarvoor staat de industrie er teveel in de kinderschoenen.
Mijn verwachting is dat de Duitse merken steeds meer de bovenkant van de markt proberen te bedienen, dat is ook de enige manier waarop de industrie nog enigszins in eigen land kan worden gehouden. Daarnaast wordt er via samenwerkingsverbanden in de landen met een opkomende auto-industrie een flinke vinger in de pap gehouden. Vanuit dit soort samenwerkingen worden de lagere regionen van de automarkt bediend, waardoor ook dit segment ingevuld wordt.
Ook in de VS zullen de Duitsers hun aanwezigheid uitbreiden. Mercedes en BMW hebben er al productiefaciliteiten (in Tuscaloosa en Spartanburg) waar de grote modellen worden gemaakt. In de toekomst wil BMW de productie in de VS uitbreiden, dit vanwege de groeimogelijkheden, maar met name om tegenvallende verkopen wegens de zwakke dollar tegen te gaan.
Hoewel de concurrentie de komende jaren alleen maar heviger zal worden, zullen de Duitse merken het met hun status, reputatie, en dynamische ondernemingszin nog flink lang uithouden.
Als er een volk is dat zijn stempel heeft gedrukt op de ontwikkeling van auto’s dan zijn het wel de Duitsers. Niet alleen zijn ze verantwoordelijk voor de eerste verbrandingsmotor (1885), ze zijn traditioneel de grootste autoproducent van Europa. De auto-industrie verschaft aan zo’n 800.000 Duitsers werk en is daarmee de grootste werkgever van Duitsland. Dit verklaart de grote macht van de Duitse belangenvereninging van autofabrikanten, het ‘Verband der Automobilindustrie’ (VDA).
Duitse auto’s verkopen traditioneel goed in Nederland. Zo was Opel lange tijd het best verkopende merk van Nederland, maar de koppositie werd onlangs overgenomen door een ander Duits merk, namelijk Volkswagen. Qua totale autoverkopen heeft Duitsland ook duidelijk een koppositie: vorig jaar was 37,5% van de verkochte auto’s van Duitse makelij, ruim meer dan de nummer 2, Frankrijk, met 21,2% van de Nederlandse autoverkopen.
Als je Duitsland zegt, dan zeg je onbegrensde snelheid op de Duitse snelweg. Dit gaat niet meer helemaal op, want er zijn steeds meer stukken snelweg waar een snelheidslimiet geldt. Ondanks het noodgedwongen snoeiwerk ten behoeve van milieu rond de grote steden maar vooral de veiligheid is dit principe van ‘Freie Fahrt’ uniek in Europa en oefent het een grote aantrekkingskracht uit op (met name Zwitserse) bezitters van snelle auto’s die hun voertuig eens ongestraft de sporen willen geven op een leeg stukje snelweg.
Ook ondergetekende maakt regelmatig dankbaar gebruik van dit recht op hardrijden op de openbare weg. Toen dit een keer door een slecht spiegelende vrachtwagenchauffeur tot een kleine aanrijding leidde gaf de ingeschakelde Autobahnpolizei-agente op de klaagzang van de vrachtwagenchauffeur dat ik veel te snel gereden had een antwoord dat slechts uit twee woorden bestond: ‘Freie Fahrt’.
De laatste tijd staat dit principe onder aanzienlijke druk, met name vanuit de Europese Gemeenschap, maar ook door mindere Goden, zoals Greenpeace. Het lijkt er gelukkig op dat Duitsland de kritiek voorlopig weet af te slaan, met name dankzij de eerdergenoemde grote invloed van de auto-industrie en de eraan gelieerde VDA.
Nurburgring in kaartEen ander Walhalla voor sportieve automobilisten dat wereldwijde beroemdheid geniet is de fameuze ‘Nordschleife’ van de Nürgburgring, in de volksmond ook wel ‘die Grüne Hölle’ (de groene hel) genoemd. Tegen betaling mag de bestuurder van wat voor motorvoertuig dan ook zich uitleven op dit 20,8 kilometer lange stuk weg vol met blinde bochten en forse hoogteverschillen. De Ring wordt hierdoor ook wel als de ultieme test van iemands rijcapaciteiten beschouwd. Daarnaast test zo ongeveer elk automerk zijn prototypes op de Ring, wat Nürburg tot een vergaarplaats van spy-fotografen maakt.
Diesel
VW TDI logoDiesel heeft een groot marktaandeel in Europa, in tegenstelling tot de VS, waar diesel nu pas echt begint door te breken.
In Nederland loopt het aandeel van diesel in de nieuwe autoverkopen gestaag omhoog, tot meer dan 25% van de totale verkopen vanaf 2005.
Vanzelfsprekend ligt het aandeel in de leasemarkt, waar de meeste kilometers gemaakt worden, nog een stuk hoger.
Diesel heeft het laatste decennium een geweldige ontwikkeling doorgemaakt. Moest er vroeger nog voorgegloeid worden en waren de diesel-motoren de eerste kilometers niet vooruit te branden, tegenwoordig doen de zelfontbranders dankzij steeds verfijndere inspuitingstechniek en turbo’s niet meer onder voor hun benzine-broertjes.
De pompverstuivingstechniek, waar Volkswagen tot voor kort nog aan vasthield heeft de laatste jaren terrein prijsgegeven aan de common-rail technologie, die tegenwoordig in bijna alle dieselmotoren gemeengoed is geworden.
Wanneer het op de zescilinder diesels aankomt is er geen serieuze concurrentie voor de Duitsers. Audi en BMW hebben zeer geavanceerde turbodiesels rond de 3 liter, terwijl Mercedes een hele range soepele common-rail zescilinder diesels levert, die ideaal zijn om op hoge snelheid de nodige snelwegkilometers af te leggen.
In het viercilinder dieselsegment is de concurrentie buitengewoon hevig, maar ook hier hebben de Duitsers een flink marktaandeel, met de bijzonder zuinige 2 liter-motoren die in menig VAG-model worden gelepeld en op de leasemarkt buitengewoon populair zijn. Hiernaast bieden ook BMW en Mercedes uitstekende vierpitters, die veel power weten te combineren met een spaarzaam brandstofverbruik.
Serieuze concurrentie ondervinden de Duitsers van Fiat, dat de laatste jaren zeer potente dieselmotoren ontwikkelt. De meest krachtige viercilinder van Fiat, de 1.9 JTD met 190 pk, verslaat zijn evenknie van BMW (2 liter, 204 pk) zelfs met een beter koppelverloop. Ook Opel is zo onder de indruk van Fiats motorblokken, dat ze al hun dieselmodellen van een Italiaans hart voorzien.
Het milieu
Milieu-liefhebbersDe roep naar schonere auto’s is met de discussie over het broeikas-effect steeds luider geworden, en de autofabrikanten staan meer dan tevoren onder zware druk om zuinigere, schonere auto’s te maken. Dit vanwege de algemene publieke opinie, maar ook door steeds strenger wordende regelgeving omtrent de uitstoot van stikstof en roet.
Volkswagen experimenteert al geruime tijd met milieuvriendelijke auto’s. De mainstream-auto’s zullen in de nabije toekomst waar mogelijk voorzien worden van VW’s T(F)SI-motoren, die gekenmerkt worden door een kleinere cilinderinhoud maar in de meeste gevallen meer koppel en vermogen dankzij turbo’s/en of superchargers. Hiernaast levert VW zijn Caddy en Touran met EcoFuel (aardgas), maar dit is niet noemenswaardig.
In het verleden heeft VW de bekende Lupo 3L uitgebracht, een driecilinder TDI die, de naam zegt t al, 3 liter per 100 kilometer verbruikte. Dit sloeg alleen aan bij de milieufreaks en de Lupo is inmiddels vervangen door de nog kleinere Fox.
Tot slot is de 1-liter-auto van VW nog de moeite van het vermelden waard: dit prototype werd in 2002 door toenmalig CEO Ferdinand Piëch onder uitgebreide media-aandacht naar de VW-aandeelhoudersvergadering gereden. Dit jaar nog meldde dezelfde Piëch dat een productieversie van deze 1-liter auto binnen 3 jaar te realiseren is, vanwege sterk gedaalde materiaalkosten.
VW 1-liter concept
Opel blijft wat het milieu betreft wat achter. Ook zij voorzien sommige modellen van aardgas maar verder komt een echt milieu-offensief niet lekker van de grond. Een aantal jaren geleden had het merk wel de ECO-Speedster als voorbeeld, maar dit was slechts een concept. De milieuvriendelijkheid blijft vooralsnog beperkt tot het monteren van 1.3 liter dieselblokjes in de kleine Opels.
Zowel Opel als VW hebben een groot aantal kleine auto’s in hun assortiment, wat het halen van door de EU gestelde emissie-eisen een stuk makkelijker maakt dan de drie Duitse luxemerken, die vrijwel alleen midden- en bovenklassers leveren.
Audi doet, als onderdeel van de Volkswagen-groep ook mee met de BLUETEC-technologie. De toepassing ervan is echter alleen bekend bij modellen die nog op de markt moeten komen, zoals de Audi Q7 6.0 V12 TDI en het Cross Coupé-concept.
Tot de invoering van Bluetec heeft Audi nog de extra zuinige ‘e’-dieselmodellen.
Tevens was in het verleden de Audi A2 uitgerust met Vokswagens 3L-technologie, maar ook bij Audi is deze een stille dood gestorven.
Mercedes C220 Bluetec
Mercedes zet net als Audi het meest in op BLUETEC. Evenals bij het merk uit Ingolstadt vielen de eerste toepassingen in personenauto’s in 2008 te verwachten, maar onlangs heeft CEO Dieter Zetsche laten weten haast te willen maken met de invoer van Bluetec. De technologie is vooral voor de Amerikaanse markt bedoeld, waar strenge milieu-eisen gelden, vooral in de staat Californië.
Naast ‘schone diesel’ ontwikkelt Mercedes, samen met BMW en GM, sinds 2005 een mild-hybride systeem. Hierbij is sprake van een conventionele auto met een grotere startmotor, waardoor de motor tijdens stilstand uitgeschakeld kan worden, maar vlot en efficiënt weer opgestart kan worden.
Daarnaast levert Mercedes haar NGT-modellen (Natural Gas Technology), die op aardgas rijden. Voormalig staatssecretaris Van Geel (VROM) gaf het goede voorbeeld en nam een E200-NGT als dienstauto.
Voor de nabije toekomst heeft Mercedes een belangrijke troef in zijn mouw. Een medewerker van het bedrijf verklapte namelijk deze week dat het aan een motor werkt die zowel op gas als op diesel kan rijden. Deze DiesOtto wordt nog deze maand voorgesteld en moet Mercedes’ paradepaardje worden in de strijd naar de gunst van de milieubewuste consument.
BMW Hydrogen 7
BMW: BMW heeft Efficient Dynamics, en werkt daarnaast als gezegd met DaimlerChrysler en General Motors samen aan de ontwikkeling van een hybride-systeem. Hiernaast rijden er prototypes van de 7-serie op waterstof rond. BMW wil deze technologie binnen twee jaar in productie-auto’s toepassen.
Efficient Dynamics is er op gericht om via technologische ontwikkelingen zoals lage-weerstand-banden, een verfijnde brandstofinspuiting en een gewichtsreductie door middel van gebruik van lichtere materialen tot een lager brandstofverbruik en een lagere Co2-uitstoot te komen. Onlangs kondigde BMW een Efficient Dynamics-offensief aan, waardoor vanaf september 75% van de verkochte BMW’s een groen energielabel zal hebben.
Performance
De favoriete stek van de internet-hooligan. Hieronder een overzicht van wat er allemaal te kiezen is in het segment van de krachtige zakenauto’s:
BMW
BMW 3.0 CSL
2008 M3
De M-divisie houdt zich bezig met de performance-modellen van BMW. Dit begon in 1972, toen de BMW 3.0 CSL werd geproduceerd. Dit gebeurde met hulp van huistuner Alpina. Na onenigheid met Alpina besloot BMW de bouw van performance-modellen in eigen hand te nemen en richtte BMW Motorsport op, dat later werd omgedoopt in BMW M GmbH. Het huidige aanbod omvat de Z4 M en M3, met een 3.2 liter zes-in-lijn die 343 pk levert, de BMW M5 en M6 met een 5 liter V10 (507 pk) en vanaf september de nieuwe M3 met een 4 liter V8 die 420 pk levert. Al deze motoren zijn atmosferisch en worden gekenmerkt door het hoge aantal toeren dat ze kunnen draaien.
Mercedes
Mercedes C63 AMG
Mercedes levert zijn performance-modellen via huistuner AMG. Dit bedrijf werd in 1967 als tuningbedrijf opgericht door Hans-Werner Aufrecht en Erhard Melcher in Großaspach, en is nu een dochterfirma van Mercedes.
Momenteel worden drie motoren aangeboden, de 55 en 63 (V8) en de 65 (V12), die in talrijke Mercedes-modellen worden ingebouwd. De 65 is een 6 liter V12 met bi-turbo en levert 612 pk. De 55 en 63 zijn zowel met als zonder supercharger (Kompressor) leverbaar met vermogens variërend van 367 (C 55 AMG) tot 517 pk (SL 55 AMG) en 481 (CLK 63 AMG) tot 525 pk (S 63 AMG). Vanaf september wordt hier de nieuwe C 63 AMG aan toegevoegd die 457 pk uit zijn atmosferische 6,2 liter V8 tovert.
Een duidelijk verschil met BMW en Audi ligt in de cilinderinhoud. Waar de andere twee proberen hun motoren relatief klein te houden, opteert Mercedes voor een rijker koppel en een relatief lager aantal pk’s per liter.
Dit hangt samen met een sterkere nadruk op luxe in plaats van sportief weggedrag, waar Audi en BMW als meer ‘hardcore’ beschouwd kunnen worden.
Audi
Audi RS4 Exclusive White
Verantwoordelijk voor de performance-modellen van Audi tot slot is quattro GmbH. Ook dit is een volledige Audi-dochter met als standplaats Neckarsulm. Naast de RS-modellen van Audi is Quattro ook verantwoordelijk voor de productie van de R8.
Het bedrijf is in 1983 opgericht en is het meest bekend van de enorme successen die de vierwielaangedreven Audi’s neerzetten in de rallywereld, met als hoogtepunt de Audi Sport Quattro S1.
De auto waar het allemaal mee begon is de ‘oer’quattro, geproduceerd vanaf 1980, die destijds al 203 pk uit een 2,1 liter vijf-in-lijn motorblok wist te halen.
Tegenwoordig produceert Quattro de Audi RS4, die 420 pk uit een atmosferische 4,2 liter V8 tovert. Nog dit jaar wordt hier de nieuwe RS6 aan toegevoegd, die (onofficieel) 579 pk uit een V10 (bi)turbo weet te halen.
(Super)Sport
Porsche 911 1964Wanneer je het over echte sportwagens hebt, is er maar één Duitse fabrikant mogelijk: Porsche. Vanaf 1964 produceert het merk de 911, het absolute boegbeeld van het merk uit Züffenhausen. In de loop der jaren zijn er diverse updates geweest maar in de basis zijn de vormen sinds de eerste 911 niet gewijzigd.
Porsche staat alom bekend als een merk waarbij door de meest veeleisende ingenieurs door en door getest wordt tot er een zo perfect mogelijk product is ontwikkeld. De gedrevenheid van de ontwikkelaars en testers leidt tot een oerdegelijk imago van het Duitse merk, en heeft er toe geleid dat Porsche ook dit jaar in de VS door JD Power tot het meest betrouwbare merk is uitgeroepen.
Naast de 911, die de ‘core business’ is van Porsche, heeft het merk het laatste decennium flink uitgebreid in de modellenreeks. Het verbaasde vriend en vijand door in 2002 met een SUV op de markt te komen. Deze Cayenne bleek echter een groot succes te worden, en heeft de verkopen van Porsche flink opgestuwd. Dat ook Porsche met zijn tijd mee gaat bewijst het door nog voor het einde van 2010 in samenwerking met VW en Audi een parallel-hybride systeem in te voeren op de Cayenne en de nog te verschijnen Panamera.
Porsche Cayenne 2007
Aan de onderkant van de markt kwam in 1996 de Boxster, die als opvolger van de legendarische 550 Spyder werd geïntroduceerd. Hoewel de wagen klein, licht en sportief is, wordt hij door velen meer als ‘vrouwenauto’ dan als volbloed Porsche gezien.
In 2005 introduceerde Porsche de Cayman. Hierop oogste Porsche veel kritiek, want het model werd als steriele ‘opvuller’ gezien die precies tussen de Boxster en de 911 geplaatst kan worden. Jeremy Clarkson noemde het model dan ook smalend ‘Coxster’.
Porsche Carrera GT
De meest extreme sportwagen die ooit door Porsche is geproduceerd is zonder twijfel de Carrera GT. Met een kunststof monocoque, magnesium-velgen, keramische remschijven en een 5,7 liter V10 die 612 pk produceert is dit met recht een supersportauto te noemen. De productie begon in 2003 en in 2006 werd de productie van deze 1380 kg wegende, 6 euroton kostende supersport na 1270 exemplaren gestaakt.
Mercedes SLR 722
Naast Porsche fluit Mercedes sinds kort ook een deuntje mee in het supersport-segment. Hierbij doel ik uiteraard op de Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren. Deze Coupé (en binnenkort ook cabrio) wordt sinds 2004 geproduceerd en heeft een supercharged 5,5 liter V8-motor aan boord die maximaal 626 pk uitbraakt. Daarnaast kwam vorig jaar de speciale ‘722 edition’ op de markt. De naam doelt niet op het aantal pk’s (dit is namelijk 650), maar is een eerbetoon aan Sterling Moss en Denis Jenkinson, die in 1955 de fameuze Mille Miglia wisten te winnen in een 300 SLR met startnummer 722.
Hoewel de SLR wel de prijs en de performance van een supersport heeft, valt hij qua gewicht (1768 kg voor de SLR en 1724 kg voor de SLR 722) een beetje buiten de boot, waardoor het meer een Gran Turismo is dan een supersport.
Ondertussen zijn McLaren en Mercedes hun eigen weg gegaan en is Mercedes de samenwerking aangegaan met HWA AG, het bedrijf van Hans Werner Aufrecht, een van de oprichters van AMG. De bedoeling is dat er een Mercedes SLC-supercar komt onder de AMG-vlag.
Mercedes en HWA zijn geen vreemden van elkaar; naast de duidelijke AMG-link werken de twee al jaren samen in het Duits toerwagenkampioenschap, de DTM.
BMW CS Concept
In de toekomst zal BMW waarschijnlijk ook richting het supercar-segment gaan, getuige het CS-concept. Waarschijnlijk zal het model dat hier uit zal voortvloeien flink wat vermogen hebben, maar net als Mercedes iets te veel een compromis zijn, waardoor hij zich op een circuit niet met de pure supersports kan meten.
Tot slot mag het Duitse Wiesmann niet vergeten worden. Deze fun-machines met een BMW-hart hebben als logo een Gekko, omdat de auto’s volgens de makers net zo strak op de weg kleven als deze kleine hagedis aan de muur.
De Toekomst
Alle Duitse merken, behalve Opel, doen het op het moment erg goed. Recordwinst na recordwinst wordt behaald en de drie luxemerken weten ondanks de hoge kosten die hieraan verbonden zijn nog een bijzonder groot deel van de productie in eigen land te houden. Het Europese subsidiebeleid om het achtergebleven Oosten te steunen heeft hierbij zeker geholpen, zonder deze regionale steunfondsen was de bouw van fabrieken in Leipzig en Dresden lang zo interessant niet geweest.
De concurrentie vanuit het buitenland is op het moment in de bovenklasse niet groot, de Amerikaanse ‘Grote Drie’ kampen met grote problemen, de Japanners verkopen goed maar zitten in de hogere klasse niet zo veel in het Duitse vaarwater en van de Chinezen is op korte termijn ook niet veel concurrentie te verwachten, daarvoor staat de industrie er teveel in de kinderschoenen.
Mijn verwachting is dat de Duitse merken steeds meer de bovenkant van de markt proberen te bedienen, dat is ook de enige manier waarop de industrie nog enigszins in eigen land kan worden gehouden. Daarnaast wordt er via samenwerkingsverbanden in de landen met een opkomende auto-industrie een flinke vinger in de pap gehouden. Vanuit dit soort samenwerkingen worden de lagere regionen van de automarkt bediend, waardoor ook dit segment ingevuld wordt.
Ook in de VS zullen de Duitsers hun aanwezigheid uitbreiden. Mercedes en BMW hebben er al productiefaciliteiten (in Tuscaloosa en Spartanburg) waar de grote modellen worden gemaakt. In de toekomst wil BMW de productie in de VS uitbreiden, dit vanwege de groeimogelijkheden, maar met name om tegenvallende verkopen wegens de zwakke dollar tegen te gaan.
Hoewel de concurrentie de komende jaren alleen maar heviger zal worden, zullen de Duitse merken het met hun status, reputatie, en dynamische ondernemingszin nog flink lang uithouden.
kristof.niesen
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Vagina. In de ingang zit het maagdenvlies (hymen) en aan het einde de baarmoedermond.
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) met twee of meer X- (zie onder andere triple X-syndroom) maar geen Y-chromosomen, waarvan het lichaam wordt gekenmerkt door de volgende geslachtsorganen:Vagina. In de ingang zit het maagdenvlies (hymen) en aan het einde de baarmoedermond.
Baarmoeder
Eierstokken (ovarium) en eileiders (tuba)
Schaamlippen en venusheuvel
Clitoris (kittelaar)
Secundaire geslachtskenmerken typerend voor de vrouw zijn:
driehoekige pubisbeharing
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verbreding van het bekken
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Kwantummechanica
Van Wikipedia
Ga naar: navigatie, zoek
Kwantummechanica is een natuurkundige theorie die het gedrag van materie op zeer kleine afstandsschalen beschrijft.
Inhoud
[verbergen]
* 1 Toelichting
* 2 Geschiedenis
o 2.1 "Oude" kwantummechanica
o 2.2 Latere ontwikkeling
* 3 Filosofische consequenties
* 4 Axiomatische opbouw
* 5 Schrödingervergelijking
* 6 Kwantumchemie
* 7 Zie ook
* 8 Externe links
[bewerk] Toelichting
In de kwantumtheorie wordt de werkelijkheid op een fundamenteel andere manier benaderd dan in de klassieke natuurkunde. In de klassieke natuurkunde wordt ervan uitgegaan dat er een objectieve werkelijkheid is die wij met conclusies uit subjectieve waarnemingen zo goed mogelijk proberen te benaderen. In de kwantumtheorie (althans in de breed aangehangen Kopenhaagse interpretatie van Niels Bohr en Werner Heisenberg) is er geen objectieve werkelijkheid. Er zijn slechts subjectieve waarnemingen en de kwantummechanica doet niets anders dan het beschrijven van die waarnemingen. Er is echter geen andere werkelijkheid "achter" die waarnemingen. Het is ook fundamenteel uitgesloten om het effect van degene die waarneemt uit te schakelen: de keuze die de waarnemer doet bij het opzetten van zijn experiment bepaalt in belangrijke mate de uitkomst daarvan. De onzekerheid van de meting wordt begrensd door de onzekerheidsrelatie van Heisenberg. Op macroscopische schaal is de invloed van het kwantumeffect meestal niet meer meetbaar en gaat de kwantummechanica over in de klassieke natuurkunde: dat heet het correspondentieprincipe.
De kwantummechanica doet slechts statistische uitspraken over een reeks van waarnemingen. Dat heeft tot gevolg dat het gedrag van een individueel elementair deeltje slechts in termen van waarschijnlijkheid kan worden beschreven. Die waarschijnlijkheden worden beschreven door het kwadraat van golffuncties, die de kans geven op het meten van een bepaald gedrag of eigenschap zoals bv. plaats, snelheid en spin. Door de poging een bepaald aspect van een deeltje te meten beïnvloedt men dat aspect. Met andere woorden de meting beïnvloedt het resultaat. Er is geen zekerheid meer.
De beschrijving van systemen door middel van een golffunctie betekent dat deeltjes zich, afhankelijk van de manier waarop ze worden waargenomen, soms als een deeltje in klassieke zin, maar soms als een golfverschijnsel gedragen. Zo kunnen bijvoorbeeld elektronenbundels, net als lichtbundels, brekingsverschijnselen en interferentie vertonen. Andersom kan licht alleen voorkomen met een energie die een veelvoud is van hν, de energie van een lichtkwantum of foton:
E = \N h \nu
waarin \N een geheel getal is ( \N = 1, 2, .. ), h de constante van Planck en ν (de Griekse letter nu) de frequentie van het licht.
Bij het formuleren van de kwantummechanica in termen van golffuncties blijkt dat bepaalde fysische grootheden uitsluitend waarden kunnen aannemen uit een bepaalde verzameling, die van de situatie en de te meten grootheid afhangt. Een bekend voorbeeld is het feit dat elektronen in een atoom slechts bepaalde energieniveaus kunnen bezetten, wat aanleiding geeft tot spectraallijnen in het licht dat door het atoom wordt uitgezonden. Een ander opmerkelijk feit in de kwantummechanica is dat sommige eigenschappen van een systeem niet tegelijkertijd met willekeurige nauwkeurigheid bekend kunnen zijn. De belangrijkste voorbeelden hiervan zijn plaats en impuls, en tijd en energie. Dit feit staat bekend als het onzekerheidsprincipe van Heisenberg.
In de kwantummechanica kan er onderscheid worden gemaakt tussen bosonen en fermionen. Het onderscheid zit in de spin van het deeltje, een fundamentele eigenschap die alleen van het type deeltje afhangt en de waarden 0,\frac12,1,\frac32,\ldots kan aannemen. De deeltjes met heeltallige spin heten bosonen, de andere worden fermionen genoemd. Een belangrijk resultaat met betrekking tot dit onderscheid is het uitsluitingsprincipe van Pauli, dat zegt dat er geen twee fermionen naast elkaar in dezelfde toestand kunnen bestaan. Voor de bosonen is dat wel mogelijk.
[bewerk] Geschiedenis
[bewerk] "Oude" kwantummechanica
Een eerste aanzet tot de theorie van de kwantummechanica is gegeven door Max Planck in zijn studie gepubliceerd in 1900 Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energie-Verteilung im Normal-Spektrum over het probleem van de straling van een zwart lichaam. Planck kan de experimentele resultaten voor deze straling verklaren door aan te nemen dat licht korrelig is en in standaardpakketjes (quanta) komt. Hij bedoelde dit als een rekentruc. De kwantummechanica is een intuïtief moeilijk te doorgronden theorie, die in de beginperiode op veel weerstand stuitte. Albert Einstein had later bezwaar tegen de kansverdeling van deeltjes: "God dobbelt niet". Hij geloofde dat de onzekerheden van de kwantumtheorie niet reëel waren, maar dat er 'verborgen variabelen' waren, die we nog niet kennen, die alsnog de theorie deterministisch zouden maken. Ook Max Planck zelf meende dat 'zijn' kwantumtheorie later vervangen zou worden door een meer deterministische theorie zonder 'vage' statistische eigenschappen. Latere experimenten hebben die positie echter onhoudbaar gemaakt. Maar Einstein zelf gaf in 1905 Plancks methode een nieuwe toepassing. Hij kon er het foto-elektrisch effect mee verklaren. Planck had hier weer bezwaar tegen.
Niels Bohr kwam met zijn baanmodel voor de elektronen rond een atoom. Louis-Victor de Broglie kwam met het idee dat deeltjes als golven gezien kunnen worden (golf-deeltje dualiteit). Arnold Sommerfeld verfijnde het baanmodel van Niels Bohr.
[bewerk] Latere ontwikkeling
Heisenberg en Schrödinger publiceerden een rekenmethode met respectievelijk matrices en een golfvergelijking. Paul Dirac vatte de theorie axiomatisch samen en breidde hem uit.
Hoe controversieel de theorie in het begin ook was, vele experimenten hebben inmiddels aangetoond dat de kwantummechanica de werkelijkheid zeer nauwkeurig beschrijft. De kwantummechanica is zo één van de succesvolste natuurkundige theorieën ooit geworden.
De theorie is echter nog geen goede beschrijving van alle natuurkundige verschijnselen. Het belangrijkste probleem is dat er nog geen kwantumtheorie van de zwaartekracht bestaat - een combinatie van de kwantummechanica met de algemene relativiteitstheorie wordt al ettelijke decennia gezocht, maar er is nog geen bevredigende oplossing. In de jaren '90 werden supersnaren als de meest veelbelovende theorie beschouwd; tegenwoordig lijkt de snaartheorie onderdeel te zijn van een algemenere M-theorie, waarover echter nog weinig bekend is. Een theorie die tracht kwantumtheorie en zwaartekracht te verenigen, staat in de natuurkunde bekend als theorie van alles (theory of everything).
[bewerk] Filosofische consequenties
De gevolgen die de onzekerheidsrelatie van Heisenberg met zich mee brengt, zijn niet alleen natuurkundig maar ook filosofisch enorm. Als eerste de natuurkundige gevolgen: in de kwantummechanica beschrijven we het deeltje, zoals gezegd, met een golffunctie en die functie hangt af van de omgeving waarin het zich bevindt. Zowel de positie als impuls (snelheid) van het elektron worden bepaald via de golffunctie. De onzekerheidsrelatie stelt dat de onzekerheid in de bepaling van de plaats, vermenigvuldigd met de onzekerheid in bepaling van de impuls nooit kleiner kan zijn dan een bepaalde waarde. Wordt de onzekerheid van de een kleiner, dan wordt de onzekerheid van de ander per definitie evenredig groter. Dit is een enorme natuurkundige consequentie. Waar de klassieke natuurkunde, die van voor de kwantummechanica, stelde dat we alles in het universum exact kunnen weten als we maar genoeg metingen doen en de metingen nauwkeurig genoeg zijn, daar stelt de kwantummechanica dat we alleen de waarschijnlijkheid kunnen bepalen en dat de onzekerheid in het bepalen van die waarschijnlijkheid gekoppeld is aan andere onzekerheden. Als de een kleiner wordt gemaakt, dan wordt de ander groter. Deze onzekerheid ontstaat niet door onnauwkeurigheid van de gebruikte apparatuur, maar is fundamenteel.
Er zijn verschijnselen die tot nu toe alleen verklaard kunnen worden als we de onzekerheidsrelatie gebruiken. De filosofische implicatie daarvan zou zijn dat processen in de natuur plaats vinden niet ondanks, maar dankzij de onzekerheidsrelatie van Heisenberg. De filosofische implicatie die de kwantummechanica met zich meebrengt is dat we moeten spreken over 'de waarschijnlijkheid van de positie van een elektron', in plaats van 'de positie van een elektron'. De Heisenberg-relatie stelt bovendien dat er een minimum onzekerheid is in de bepaling. Een filosofische interpretatie van die onzekerheid is 'willekeur' en in die interpretatie zou dus de kwantummechanica dicteren dat er een fundamentele willekeur in de natuur om ons heen is. Dit in contrast met de klassieke, deterministische natuurkunde voordien, die wel een fundamentele willekeur uitsloot. Dit stoorde dan ook ten zeerste de natuurkundigen die hun denkbeelden in de 19e eeuw hadden opgedaan zoals Einstein en Planck. De meesten van deze 'oudere' natuurkundigen hebben de kwantummechanica daarom ook nooit volledig aanvaard.
Volgens een bepaalde zienswijze binnen de kwantummechanica bestaan ten gevolge van het onzekerheidsprincipe deeltjes niet eens totdat er een waarneming plaatsvindt. Schrödinger was door deze zienswijze dermate ontstemd dat hij het beroemde voorbeeld van de kat beschreef, die door dit effect tegelijkertijd zowel dood als levend was. Schrödinger hoopte met dit onmogelijke voorbeeld te laten zien dat deze filosofie belachelijk was en dat men dit denkbeeld maar snel moest laten vallen. Tot zijn verdriet is bijna het tegenovergestelde gebeurd en is Schrödingers kat een geheel eigen leven gaan leiden.
Een ander curieus gevolg van het onzekerheidsprincipe is dat elk deeltje dat zich van A naar B verplaatst elk mogelijk pad tussen A en B daarvoor gebruikt. Voor iedere waarnemer is het echter duidelijk dat dit zeker op het niveau van de klassieke natuurkunde niet is waar te nemen. Theoretici hebben hiermee geworsteld totdat Richard Feynman aantoonde dat alle paden tegen elkaar wegvallen op één na; Feynman won met deze ontdekking een Nobelprijs.
[bewerk] Axiomatische opbouw
De kwantummechanica bestaat uit een aantal axioma's, hieronder aangegeven, waarop de rest van de theorie is gebouwd. Het is genoteerd met de zogenaamde bra-ket notatie, ook wel Dirac-notatie genoemd:
1. De toestand van een fysisch systeem wordt gegeven door een vector | ψ > in een Hilbertruimte.
2. Meetbare grootheden corresponderen met hermitische operatoren.
3. De kans dat een systeem met toestandsvergelijking | Ψ > zich in toestand | α > bevindt wordt gegeven door P(α,Ψ
= < α | Ψ >
4. Aan een deeltje dient nog de volgende grootheid, spin, toegevoegd te worden. S = (Sx,Sy,Sz) gedefinieerd door de commutatie relaties:
1. [S_x, S_y] = i \hbar S_z
2. [S_z, S_x] = i \hbar S_y
3. [S_y, S_z] = i \hbar S_x
5. Systemen van meerdere identieke bosonen hebben een golffunctie die even is onder verwisseling van een deeltjespaar en systemen van meerdere identieke fermionen hebben een golffunctie die oneven is onder verwisseling van een deeltjespaar.
[bewerk] Schrödingervergelijking
In de meest simpele vorm zal de kwantummechanica deeltjes beschrijven als oplossing van de schrödingervergelijking. In de plaats-representatie is deze golffunctie (\Psi(\vec{x},t)) een oplossing van deze vorm van de schrödingervergelijking:
i\hbar \frac{\partial \Psi}{\partial t} = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \nabla^2 \Psi + V(\vec{x})\Psi
In een meer algemene vorm kan de tijdsafhankelijke schrödingervergelijking geschreven worden als:
i\hbar \frac{\partial \Psi}{\partial t} = H \Psi
Hierbij is H de hamiltoniaan die de totale energie weergeeft. Vaak wordt er voor gekozen om de tijdsonafhankelijke schrödingervergelijking op te lossen voor \psi(\vec{x}) .
E \psi(\vec{x}) = H \psi(\vec{x})
De tijdsafhankelijke golffunctie wordt dan gegeven door: \Psi(\vec{x},t) = e^{-i\frac{E}{\hbar}t} \psi(\vec{x}).
[bewerk] Kwantumchemie
In de kwantumchemie wordt de kwantumtheorie toegepast op chemische verschijnselen.
Van Wikipedia
Ga naar: navigatie, zoek
Kwantummechanica is een natuurkundige theorie die het gedrag van materie op zeer kleine afstandsschalen beschrijft.
Inhoud
[verbergen]
* 1 Toelichting
* 2 Geschiedenis
o 2.1 "Oude" kwantummechanica
o 2.2 Latere ontwikkeling
* 3 Filosofische consequenties
* 4 Axiomatische opbouw
* 5 Schrödingervergelijking
* 6 Kwantumchemie
* 7 Zie ook
* 8 Externe links
[bewerk] Toelichting
In de kwantumtheorie wordt de werkelijkheid op een fundamenteel andere manier benaderd dan in de klassieke natuurkunde. In de klassieke natuurkunde wordt ervan uitgegaan dat er een objectieve werkelijkheid is die wij met conclusies uit subjectieve waarnemingen zo goed mogelijk proberen te benaderen. In de kwantumtheorie (althans in de breed aangehangen Kopenhaagse interpretatie van Niels Bohr en Werner Heisenberg) is er geen objectieve werkelijkheid. Er zijn slechts subjectieve waarnemingen en de kwantummechanica doet niets anders dan het beschrijven van die waarnemingen. Er is echter geen andere werkelijkheid "achter" die waarnemingen. Het is ook fundamenteel uitgesloten om het effect van degene die waarneemt uit te schakelen: de keuze die de waarnemer doet bij het opzetten van zijn experiment bepaalt in belangrijke mate de uitkomst daarvan. De onzekerheid van de meting wordt begrensd door de onzekerheidsrelatie van Heisenberg. Op macroscopische schaal is de invloed van het kwantumeffect meestal niet meer meetbaar en gaat de kwantummechanica over in de klassieke natuurkunde: dat heet het correspondentieprincipe.
De kwantummechanica doet slechts statistische uitspraken over een reeks van waarnemingen. Dat heeft tot gevolg dat het gedrag van een individueel elementair deeltje slechts in termen van waarschijnlijkheid kan worden beschreven. Die waarschijnlijkheden worden beschreven door het kwadraat van golffuncties, die de kans geven op het meten van een bepaald gedrag of eigenschap zoals bv. plaats, snelheid en spin. Door de poging een bepaald aspect van een deeltje te meten beïnvloedt men dat aspect. Met andere woorden de meting beïnvloedt het resultaat. Er is geen zekerheid meer.
De beschrijving van systemen door middel van een golffunctie betekent dat deeltjes zich, afhankelijk van de manier waarop ze worden waargenomen, soms als een deeltje in klassieke zin, maar soms als een golfverschijnsel gedragen. Zo kunnen bijvoorbeeld elektronenbundels, net als lichtbundels, brekingsverschijnselen en interferentie vertonen. Andersom kan licht alleen voorkomen met een energie die een veelvoud is van hν, de energie van een lichtkwantum of foton:
E = \N h \nu
waarin \N een geheel getal is ( \N = 1, 2, .. ), h de constante van Planck en ν (de Griekse letter nu) de frequentie van het licht.
Bij het formuleren van de kwantummechanica in termen van golffuncties blijkt dat bepaalde fysische grootheden uitsluitend waarden kunnen aannemen uit een bepaalde verzameling, die van de situatie en de te meten grootheid afhangt. Een bekend voorbeeld is het feit dat elektronen in een atoom slechts bepaalde energieniveaus kunnen bezetten, wat aanleiding geeft tot spectraallijnen in het licht dat door het atoom wordt uitgezonden. Een ander opmerkelijk feit in de kwantummechanica is dat sommige eigenschappen van een systeem niet tegelijkertijd met willekeurige nauwkeurigheid bekend kunnen zijn. De belangrijkste voorbeelden hiervan zijn plaats en impuls, en tijd en energie. Dit feit staat bekend als het onzekerheidsprincipe van Heisenberg.
In de kwantummechanica kan er onderscheid worden gemaakt tussen bosonen en fermionen. Het onderscheid zit in de spin van het deeltje, een fundamentele eigenschap die alleen van het type deeltje afhangt en de waarden 0,\frac12,1,\frac32,\ldots kan aannemen. De deeltjes met heeltallige spin heten bosonen, de andere worden fermionen genoemd. Een belangrijk resultaat met betrekking tot dit onderscheid is het uitsluitingsprincipe van Pauli, dat zegt dat er geen twee fermionen naast elkaar in dezelfde toestand kunnen bestaan. Voor de bosonen is dat wel mogelijk.
[bewerk] Geschiedenis
[bewerk] "Oude" kwantummechanica
Een eerste aanzet tot de theorie van de kwantummechanica is gegeven door Max Planck in zijn studie gepubliceerd in 1900 Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energie-Verteilung im Normal-Spektrum over het probleem van de straling van een zwart lichaam. Planck kan de experimentele resultaten voor deze straling verklaren door aan te nemen dat licht korrelig is en in standaardpakketjes (quanta) komt. Hij bedoelde dit als een rekentruc. De kwantummechanica is een intuïtief moeilijk te doorgronden theorie, die in de beginperiode op veel weerstand stuitte. Albert Einstein had later bezwaar tegen de kansverdeling van deeltjes: "God dobbelt niet". Hij geloofde dat de onzekerheden van de kwantumtheorie niet reëel waren, maar dat er 'verborgen variabelen' waren, die we nog niet kennen, die alsnog de theorie deterministisch zouden maken. Ook Max Planck zelf meende dat 'zijn' kwantumtheorie later vervangen zou worden door een meer deterministische theorie zonder 'vage' statistische eigenschappen. Latere experimenten hebben die positie echter onhoudbaar gemaakt. Maar Einstein zelf gaf in 1905 Plancks methode een nieuwe toepassing. Hij kon er het foto-elektrisch effect mee verklaren. Planck had hier weer bezwaar tegen.
Niels Bohr kwam met zijn baanmodel voor de elektronen rond een atoom. Louis-Victor de Broglie kwam met het idee dat deeltjes als golven gezien kunnen worden (golf-deeltje dualiteit). Arnold Sommerfeld verfijnde het baanmodel van Niels Bohr.
[bewerk] Latere ontwikkeling
Heisenberg en Schrödinger publiceerden een rekenmethode met respectievelijk matrices en een golfvergelijking. Paul Dirac vatte de theorie axiomatisch samen en breidde hem uit.
Hoe controversieel de theorie in het begin ook was, vele experimenten hebben inmiddels aangetoond dat de kwantummechanica de werkelijkheid zeer nauwkeurig beschrijft. De kwantummechanica is zo één van de succesvolste natuurkundige theorieën ooit geworden.
De theorie is echter nog geen goede beschrijving van alle natuurkundige verschijnselen. Het belangrijkste probleem is dat er nog geen kwantumtheorie van de zwaartekracht bestaat - een combinatie van de kwantummechanica met de algemene relativiteitstheorie wordt al ettelijke decennia gezocht, maar er is nog geen bevredigende oplossing. In de jaren '90 werden supersnaren als de meest veelbelovende theorie beschouwd; tegenwoordig lijkt de snaartheorie onderdeel te zijn van een algemenere M-theorie, waarover echter nog weinig bekend is. Een theorie die tracht kwantumtheorie en zwaartekracht te verenigen, staat in de natuurkunde bekend als theorie van alles (theory of everything).
[bewerk] Filosofische consequenties
De gevolgen die de onzekerheidsrelatie van Heisenberg met zich mee brengt, zijn niet alleen natuurkundig maar ook filosofisch enorm. Als eerste de natuurkundige gevolgen: in de kwantummechanica beschrijven we het deeltje, zoals gezegd, met een golffunctie en die functie hangt af van de omgeving waarin het zich bevindt. Zowel de positie als impuls (snelheid) van het elektron worden bepaald via de golffunctie. De onzekerheidsrelatie stelt dat de onzekerheid in de bepaling van de plaats, vermenigvuldigd met de onzekerheid in bepaling van de impuls nooit kleiner kan zijn dan een bepaalde waarde. Wordt de onzekerheid van de een kleiner, dan wordt de onzekerheid van de ander per definitie evenredig groter. Dit is een enorme natuurkundige consequentie. Waar de klassieke natuurkunde, die van voor de kwantummechanica, stelde dat we alles in het universum exact kunnen weten als we maar genoeg metingen doen en de metingen nauwkeurig genoeg zijn, daar stelt de kwantummechanica dat we alleen de waarschijnlijkheid kunnen bepalen en dat de onzekerheid in het bepalen van die waarschijnlijkheid gekoppeld is aan andere onzekerheden. Als de een kleiner wordt gemaakt, dan wordt de ander groter. Deze onzekerheid ontstaat niet door onnauwkeurigheid van de gebruikte apparatuur, maar is fundamenteel.
Er zijn verschijnselen die tot nu toe alleen verklaard kunnen worden als we de onzekerheidsrelatie gebruiken. De filosofische implicatie daarvan zou zijn dat processen in de natuur plaats vinden niet ondanks, maar dankzij de onzekerheidsrelatie van Heisenberg. De filosofische implicatie die de kwantummechanica met zich meebrengt is dat we moeten spreken over 'de waarschijnlijkheid van de positie van een elektron', in plaats van 'de positie van een elektron'. De Heisenberg-relatie stelt bovendien dat er een minimum onzekerheid is in de bepaling. Een filosofische interpretatie van die onzekerheid is 'willekeur' en in die interpretatie zou dus de kwantummechanica dicteren dat er een fundamentele willekeur in de natuur om ons heen is. Dit in contrast met de klassieke, deterministische natuurkunde voordien, die wel een fundamentele willekeur uitsloot. Dit stoorde dan ook ten zeerste de natuurkundigen die hun denkbeelden in de 19e eeuw hadden opgedaan zoals Einstein en Planck. De meesten van deze 'oudere' natuurkundigen hebben de kwantummechanica daarom ook nooit volledig aanvaard.
Volgens een bepaalde zienswijze binnen de kwantummechanica bestaan ten gevolge van het onzekerheidsprincipe deeltjes niet eens totdat er een waarneming plaatsvindt. Schrödinger was door deze zienswijze dermate ontstemd dat hij het beroemde voorbeeld van de kat beschreef, die door dit effect tegelijkertijd zowel dood als levend was. Schrödinger hoopte met dit onmogelijke voorbeeld te laten zien dat deze filosofie belachelijk was en dat men dit denkbeeld maar snel moest laten vallen. Tot zijn verdriet is bijna het tegenovergestelde gebeurd en is Schrödingers kat een geheel eigen leven gaan leiden.
Een ander curieus gevolg van het onzekerheidsprincipe is dat elk deeltje dat zich van A naar B verplaatst elk mogelijk pad tussen A en B daarvoor gebruikt. Voor iedere waarnemer is het echter duidelijk dat dit zeker op het niveau van de klassieke natuurkunde niet is waar te nemen. Theoretici hebben hiermee geworsteld totdat Richard Feynman aantoonde dat alle paden tegen elkaar wegvallen op één na; Feynman won met deze ontdekking een Nobelprijs.
[bewerk] Axiomatische opbouw
De kwantummechanica bestaat uit een aantal axioma's, hieronder aangegeven, waarop de rest van de theorie is gebouwd. Het is genoteerd met de zogenaamde bra-ket notatie, ook wel Dirac-notatie genoemd:
1. De toestand van een fysisch systeem wordt gegeven door een vector | ψ > in een Hilbertruimte.
2. Meetbare grootheden corresponderen met hermitische operatoren.
3. De kans dat een systeem met toestandsvergelijking | Ψ > zich in toestand | α > bevindt wordt gegeven door P(α,Ψ
= < α | Ψ >4. Aan een deeltje dient nog de volgende grootheid, spin, toegevoegd te worden. S = (Sx,Sy,Sz) gedefinieerd door de commutatie relaties:
1. [S_x, S_y] = i \hbar S_z
2. [S_z, S_x] = i \hbar S_y
3. [S_y, S_z] = i \hbar S_x
5. Systemen van meerdere identieke bosonen hebben een golffunctie die even is onder verwisseling van een deeltjespaar en systemen van meerdere identieke fermionen hebben een golffunctie die oneven is onder verwisseling van een deeltjespaar.
[bewerk] Schrödingervergelijking
In de meest simpele vorm zal de kwantummechanica deeltjes beschrijven als oplossing van de schrödingervergelijking. In de plaats-representatie is deze golffunctie (\Psi(\vec{x},t)) een oplossing van deze vorm van de schrödingervergelijking:
i\hbar \frac{\partial \Psi}{\partial t} = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \nabla^2 \Psi + V(\vec{x})\Psi
In een meer algemene vorm kan de tijdsafhankelijke schrödingervergelijking geschreven worden als:
i\hbar \frac{\partial \Psi}{\partial t} = H \Psi
Hierbij is H de hamiltoniaan die de totale energie weergeeft. Vaak wordt er voor gekozen om de tijdsonafhankelijke schrödingervergelijking op te lossen voor \psi(\vec{x}) .
E \psi(\vec{x}) = H \psi(\vec{x})
De tijdsafhankelijke golffunctie wordt dan gegeven door: \Psi(\vec{x},t) = e^{-i\frac{E}{\hbar}t} \psi(\vec{x}).
[bewerk] Kwantumchemie
In de kwantumchemie wordt de kwantumtheorie toegepast op chemische verschijnselen.
Stancke
Legacy Member
Op dit forum werken we met infractions, een puntensysteem voor overtredingen cfr het bonus malus systeem. Moderators kunnen je per overtreding een aantal strafpunten geven. Als je aan een bepaald aantal strafpunten komt volgt er automatisch een sanctie, meestal een ban van het forum.
Infractions devalueren in de tijd, dus als je je gedraagt kom je uiteindelijk terug op nul punten terecht.
10 punten = 1 dag ban
15 punten = 2 dagen ban
20 punten = 3 dagen ban
25 punten = 4 dagen ban
30 punten = permanente ban
Over de infractions wordt met de crew niet gediscussieerd!
Dit lijstje betreft de algemene verdeling van infractionpunten, zoals deze over het gehele forum van toepassing is. Uitzonderingen hierop vormen fora zoals Algemene Discussies, Webdesign en Buy & Sell. Hiervoor hebben we dan ook een eigen verdeling gemaakt (zie hieronder).
De infractionsverdeling geldt tegelijk als algemeen rulebook en als algemene strafverdeling!
Zeer lichte overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Niet aangepast taalgebruik 1pt 2mnd
Thread diggen 2pt 2mnd
Offtopic 2pt 2mnd
Lichte overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Onaanvaardbare signature categorie 2 (warez, clickgame, reclame) 3pt 3mnd
Onaanvaardbare avatar (porno, racisme, ...) 3pt 3mnd
Belachelijke/onnuttige/ongewenste post 3pt 3mnd
PM ivm signature negeren 3pt 3mnd
Gemiddelde overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Starten van een belachelijke thread 3pt 4mnd
Aanzetten tot illegale praktijken (warez, diefstal, ...) 3pt 4mnd
Reclamepost/thread 3pt 4mnd
Pmspam 4pt 4mnd
Misbruik maken van reportsysteem 4pt 4mnd
Onaanvaardbare post (porno, schokkend materiaal, ...) 4pt 4mnd
Warezrequest 4pt 6mnd
Zware overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Thread verzieken 4pt 6mnd
Onaanvaardbare signature categorie 1 4pt 6mnd
Participatie flame 4pt 3mnd
Uitlokken van flame 4pt 6mnd
Flame, racisme 5pt 6mnd
Andere fora onderspammen in naam van Telenet Games 5pt 6mnd
Dubbelaccount tijdens temp ban (infraction voor originele) 3pt 6mnd
Flamepm (naar mod of member) 6pt 6mnd
Weigeren signature aan te passen na pm 7pt 6mnd
Aanklagen modactie in nieuwe thread 7pt 6mnd
Blijven posten van threads/posts na delete 6pt 6mnd
Aanhoudende kritiek op mods in de thread 6pt 6mnd
Zeer zware overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Clickgame, referral 15pt 6mnd
Reclamespam (meerdere reclame-threads) 15pt 12mnd
Zware flame, bedreigen van personen 15pt 12mnd
Aanbieden van warez 15pt 12mnd
Dubbelaccount tijdens temp ban originele (infraction voor dubbel) 30pt 50mnd
Reclame-account 30pt 50mnd
Voor sommige fora is er een uitbreiding op de algemene lijst van overtredingen (infractions) van toepassing. Je vindt de verdeling hier.
Algemene discussies
infraction punten maanden
Posten in spamthreads 2pt 4mnd
Starten van Googlethread 2pt 4mnd
Starten van huiswerkthread 2pt 4mnd
Informatie vragen omtrent illegale onderdelen/illegaal opvoeren 2pt 4mnd
Niet respecteren van andermans voertuig 3pt 4mnd
Webdesign
infraction punten maanden
Foutieve prefix 3pt 3mnd
Sitecheck op webdesign 4pt 4mnd
Reclame 5pt 6mnd
Sitecheck
infraction punten maanden
Foutieve prefix 3pt 3mnd
Poll plaatsen 3pt 3mnd
URL verwijderen 4pt 4mnd
Reclame 5pt 6mnd
Template of rip-off posten 5pt 6mnd
Buy & Sell
infraction punten maanden
Foutieve threadtitel 4pt 3mnd
Verkeerd subforum 2pt 3mnd
Teveel ups #1 2pt 3mnd
Teveel ups #2 4pt 6mnd
Teveel ups #3 10pt 6mnd
Offtopic #1 2pt 3mnd
Offtopic #2 4pt 3mnd
Offtopic #3 10pt 3mnd
Offtopic #4 10pt 6mnd
Winkelverkopen 10pt 6mnd
Lotverkopen zonder toestemming 10pt 6mnd
Op ons forum krijg je de mogelijkheid om een eigen signature en avatar in te stellen. Maak hier echter geen misbruik van! Even aanhalen wat kan en niet kan...
Onaanvaardbare signatures categorie 2
Dit zijn signatures die clickgames, referrals, crashlinks, links naar porno- en warezsites, internetpagina's met commerciele doeleinden of georganiseerde reclame- en wervingcampagnes voor andere sites buiten de onze bevatten.
Met pagina's met commerciele doeleinden bedoelen we specifieke verkoopsthreads op andere fora/sites dan de onze, links of tekst die je in je signature moet plaatsen om met een wedstrijd voor een ander forum/site dan de onze mee te doen, ...
Onaanvaardbare signatures categorie 1
Dit zijn signatures die racisme, flame, onverdraagzaamheid, ... naar bepaalde mensen of bevolkingsgroepen (zowel ethnisch als cultureel) bevatten. Dit kan bvb naar aanhangers van andere godsdiensten gericht zijn, maar even goed tegen fans van een bepaalde voetbalclub of eigenaars van specifieke wagens.
Signatures moeten overigens aan de volgende regels qua afmetingen voldoen:
maximum 2 regels in size 3
maximum 3 regels in size 2 (normale grootte)
maximum 4 regels in size 1
Bekijk ook even de paragraaf i.v.m. signatures bij Forum Tools.
Avatars
Je bent vrij om je avatar te kiezen, zolang deze aan bepaalde regels voldoet. Zo is confronterend bloot, porno, racisme, onverdraagzaamheid, ... niet toegelaten. Ook mag je geen 'flitsende' geanimeerde afbeeldingen gebruiken. Het faken van crewmemberstatus d.m.v. avatars is eveneens verboden.
Omdat veel mensen zich zwaar ergeren aan deze nieuwe forumhype, gaan we ze vanaf nu verbieden:
Post zelf géén "BAN +1", "CLOSE +1" of "WRONG FORUM!" alike replies meer, maar gebruik de "Report This Thread" knop. Daar dient ie voor, en de moderators zullen veel sneller actie kunnen ondernemen!
Overtreders mogen zich aan een sanctie (infraction) verwachten.
In de rules wordt er vermelding gemaakt van nutteloze, Google en huiswerkthreads.
Onder nutteloze threads verstaan we threads die geen meerwaarde bieden aan de discussies op ons forum (we hoeven dus pakweg niet te weten hoe je vakantie verlopen is) of zwamthreads die op andere fora gepost worden (veelal gestart met het excuus 'ik kan niet op zwam dus post ik het hier maar'). Ook threads om stemmen voor een of andere verkiezing of wedstrijd te ronselen zijn hier niet welkom.
Googlethreads zijn threads waarin je een vraag stelt waarop je het antwoord met een simpele Google zoekopdracht kon gevonden hebben.
De term huiswerkthreads spreekt wel voor zich. Dit forum dient namelijk niet om je schoolopdrachten door iemand anders te laten oplossen.
Op dit forum is illegale software ten strengste verboden. Dit heeft betrekking op het promoten, aanbieden, vragen en verhandelen van en naar dergelijke software. Hierop staan strenge straffen, nader beschreven in de infractionsverdeling.
Ook het linken naar sites waar illegale software gevonden kan worden, inclusief torrent trackers en Usenet sites, is verboden.
Vanaf 2006 vallen ook zogenaamde no-cd cracks, waarmee je een computerspel of andere software zonder de bijhorende CD/DVD of andere vorm van authenticatie kan draaien onder de noemer 'illegale software'. Dit is een beslissing waarop niet teruggekomen wordt, de effectieve illegaliteit ervan in vraag stellen en aankaarten bij de moderators van dit forum heeft aldus geen zin.
Infractions devalueren in de tijd, dus als je je gedraagt kom je uiteindelijk terug op nul punten terecht.
10 punten = 1 dag ban
15 punten = 2 dagen ban
20 punten = 3 dagen ban
25 punten = 4 dagen ban
30 punten = permanente ban
Over de infractions wordt met de crew niet gediscussieerd!
Dit lijstje betreft de algemene verdeling van infractionpunten, zoals deze over het gehele forum van toepassing is. Uitzonderingen hierop vormen fora zoals Algemene Discussies, Webdesign en Buy & Sell. Hiervoor hebben we dan ook een eigen verdeling gemaakt (zie hieronder).
De infractionsverdeling geldt tegelijk als algemeen rulebook en als algemene strafverdeling!
Zeer lichte overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Niet aangepast taalgebruik 1pt 2mnd
Thread diggen 2pt 2mnd
Offtopic 2pt 2mnd
Lichte overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Onaanvaardbare signature categorie 2 (warez, clickgame, reclame) 3pt 3mnd
Onaanvaardbare avatar (porno, racisme, ...) 3pt 3mnd
Belachelijke/onnuttige/ongewenste post 3pt 3mnd
PM ivm signature negeren 3pt 3mnd
Gemiddelde overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Starten van een belachelijke thread 3pt 4mnd
Aanzetten tot illegale praktijken (warez, diefstal, ...) 3pt 4mnd
Reclamepost/thread 3pt 4mnd
Pmspam 4pt 4mnd
Misbruik maken van reportsysteem 4pt 4mnd
Onaanvaardbare post (porno, schokkend materiaal, ...) 4pt 4mnd
Warezrequest 4pt 6mnd
Zware overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Thread verzieken 4pt 6mnd
Onaanvaardbare signature categorie 1 4pt 6mnd
Participatie flame 4pt 3mnd
Uitlokken van flame 4pt 6mnd
Flame, racisme 5pt 6mnd
Andere fora onderspammen in naam van Telenet Games 5pt 6mnd
Dubbelaccount tijdens temp ban (infraction voor originele) 3pt 6mnd
Flamepm (naar mod of member) 6pt 6mnd
Weigeren signature aan te passen na pm 7pt 6mnd
Aanklagen modactie in nieuwe thread 7pt 6mnd
Blijven posten van threads/posts na delete 6pt 6mnd
Aanhoudende kritiek op mods in de thread 6pt 6mnd
Zeer zware overtreding
infraction punten maanden
Clickgame, referral 15pt 6mnd
Reclamespam (meerdere reclame-threads) 15pt 12mnd
Zware flame, bedreigen van personen 15pt 12mnd
Aanbieden van warez 15pt 12mnd
Dubbelaccount tijdens temp ban originele (infraction voor dubbel) 30pt 50mnd
Reclame-account 30pt 50mnd
Voor sommige fora is er een uitbreiding op de algemene lijst van overtredingen (infractions) van toepassing. Je vindt de verdeling hier.
Algemene discussies
infraction punten maanden
Posten in spamthreads 2pt 4mnd
Starten van Googlethread 2pt 4mnd
Starten van huiswerkthread 2pt 4mnd
Informatie vragen omtrent illegale onderdelen/illegaal opvoeren 2pt 4mnd
Niet respecteren van andermans voertuig 3pt 4mnd
Webdesign
infraction punten maanden
Foutieve prefix 3pt 3mnd
Sitecheck op webdesign 4pt 4mnd
Reclame 5pt 6mnd
Sitecheck
infraction punten maanden
Foutieve prefix 3pt 3mnd
Poll plaatsen 3pt 3mnd
URL verwijderen 4pt 4mnd
Reclame 5pt 6mnd
Template of rip-off posten 5pt 6mnd
Buy & Sell
infraction punten maanden
Foutieve threadtitel 4pt 3mnd
Verkeerd subforum 2pt 3mnd
Teveel ups #1 2pt 3mnd
Teveel ups #2 4pt 6mnd
Teveel ups #3 10pt 6mnd
Offtopic #1 2pt 3mnd
Offtopic #2 4pt 3mnd
Offtopic #3 10pt 3mnd
Offtopic #4 10pt 6mnd
Winkelverkopen 10pt 6mnd
Lotverkopen zonder toestemming 10pt 6mnd
Op ons forum krijg je de mogelijkheid om een eigen signature en avatar in te stellen. Maak hier echter geen misbruik van! Even aanhalen wat kan en niet kan...
Onaanvaardbare signatures categorie 2
Dit zijn signatures die clickgames, referrals, crashlinks, links naar porno- en warezsites, internetpagina's met commerciele doeleinden of georganiseerde reclame- en wervingcampagnes voor andere sites buiten de onze bevatten.
Met pagina's met commerciele doeleinden bedoelen we specifieke verkoopsthreads op andere fora/sites dan de onze, links of tekst die je in je signature moet plaatsen om met een wedstrijd voor een ander forum/site dan de onze mee te doen, ...
Onaanvaardbare signatures categorie 1
Dit zijn signatures die racisme, flame, onverdraagzaamheid, ... naar bepaalde mensen of bevolkingsgroepen (zowel ethnisch als cultureel) bevatten. Dit kan bvb naar aanhangers van andere godsdiensten gericht zijn, maar even goed tegen fans van een bepaalde voetbalclub of eigenaars van specifieke wagens.
Signatures moeten overigens aan de volgende regels qua afmetingen voldoen:
maximum 2 regels in size 3
maximum 3 regels in size 2 (normale grootte)
maximum 4 regels in size 1
Bekijk ook even de paragraaf i.v.m. signatures bij Forum Tools.
Avatars
Je bent vrij om je avatar te kiezen, zolang deze aan bepaalde regels voldoet. Zo is confronterend bloot, porno, racisme, onverdraagzaamheid, ... niet toegelaten. Ook mag je geen 'flitsende' geanimeerde afbeeldingen gebruiken. Het faken van crewmemberstatus d.m.v. avatars is eveneens verboden.
Omdat veel mensen zich zwaar ergeren aan deze nieuwe forumhype, gaan we ze vanaf nu verbieden:
Post zelf géén "BAN +1", "CLOSE +1" of "WRONG FORUM!" alike replies meer, maar gebruik de "Report This Thread" knop. Daar dient ie voor, en de moderators zullen veel sneller actie kunnen ondernemen!
Overtreders mogen zich aan een sanctie (infraction) verwachten.
In de rules wordt er vermelding gemaakt van nutteloze, Google en huiswerkthreads.
Onder nutteloze threads verstaan we threads die geen meerwaarde bieden aan de discussies op ons forum (we hoeven dus pakweg niet te weten hoe je vakantie verlopen is) of zwamthreads die op andere fora gepost worden (veelal gestart met het excuus 'ik kan niet op zwam dus post ik het hier maar'). Ook threads om stemmen voor een of andere verkiezing of wedstrijd te ronselen zijn hier niet welkom.
Googlethreads zijn threads waarin je een vraag stelt waarop je het antwoord met een simpele Google zoekopdracht kon gevonden hebben.
De term huiswerkthreads spreekt wel voor zich. Dit forum dient namelijk niet om je schoolopdrachten door iemand anders te laten oplossen.
Op dit forum is illegale software ten strengste verboden. Dit heeft betrekking op het promoten, aanbieden, vragen en verhandelen van en naar dergelijke software. Hierop staan strenge straffen, nader beschreven in de infractionsverdeling.
Ook het linken naar sites waar illegale software gevonden kan worden, inclusief torrent trackers en Usenet sites, is verboden.
Vanaf 2006 vallen ook zogenaamde no-cd cracks, waarmee je een computerspel of andere software zonder de bijhorende CD/DVD of andere vorm van authenticatie kan draaien onder de noemer 'illegale software'. Dit is een beslissing waarop niet teruggekomen wordt, de effectieve illegaliteit ervan in vraag stellen en aankaarten bij de moderators van dit forum heeft aldus geen zin.
Poepoei
Legacy Member
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assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below,
refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a
licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you
copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
under copyright law.
A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
modifications and/or translated into another language.
A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject
(or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly
within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a
textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any
mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical
connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.
The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License. If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero
Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.
The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML
or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of
transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats
include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by
proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
processing tools are not generally available, and the
machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.
The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means
the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose
title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a
specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title"
of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty
Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
no effect on the meaning of this License.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
(which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version
if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
adjacent to the other copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add
to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If
there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one
stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section.
You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers
or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section
may not be included in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
Entitled "Endorsements".
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to
copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License. However,
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
parties remain in full compliance.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
Free Documentation License".
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the "with...Texts." line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.
GNU Free Documentation License
Version 1.2, November 2002
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to
assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it,
with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way
to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible
for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative
works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It
complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free
program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License
principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that
contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be
distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
work under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below,
refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a
licensee, and is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you
copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
under copyright law.
A "Modified Version" of the Document means any work containing the
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with
modifications and/or translated into another language.
A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of
the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the
publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall subject
(or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall directly
within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a
textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any
mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical
connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.
The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License. If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero
Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.
The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML
or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of
transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats
include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by
proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
processing tools are not generally available, and the
machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.
The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means
the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose
title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a
specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title"
of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty
Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
no effect on the meaning of this License.
2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.
4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:
A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
(which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version
if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modified Version, as the publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
adjacent to the other copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add
to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If
there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one
stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section.
You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers
or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section
may not be included in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.
If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
imply endorsement of any Modified Version.
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
Entitled "Endorsements".
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.
8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
title.
9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to
copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License. However,
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
parties remain in full compliance.
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:
Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
Free Documentation License".
If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the "with...Texts." line with this:
with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.
If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.
Het archief is een bevroren moment uit een vorige versie van dit forum, met andere regels en andere bazen. Deze posts weerspiegelen op geen enkele manier onze huidige ideeën, waarden of wereldbeelden en zijn op sommige plaatsen gecensureerd wegens ontoelaatbaar. Veel zijn in een andere tijdsgeest gemaakt, al dan niet ironisch - zoals in het ironische subforum Off-Topic - en zouden op dit moment niet meer gepost (mogen) worden. Toch bieden we dit archief nog graag aan als informatiedatabank en naslagwerk. Lees er hier meer over of start een gesprek met anderen.